Shaping operations are generally divided into

three groups based upon how the parent metal

flows or deforms during the shaping process
,namely
Bending
Forming
Drawing
Bending :
Bending is defined as shaping metal around a
straight axis which extends completely across the
material.

The result is a plane surface at an angle to the

original plane of the work piece material.

Metal flow is uniform along the bend axis ,

with inner surface of the bend in compression
and the outer surface in tension.
Forming:
Forming is defined as shaping metal around a
curved axis instead of a straight one.

A part that is formed generally takes the shape

of the punch or die.

Metal flow is not uniform .

Drawing:
Drawing is the name given to the production of
cups , shells , boxes and similar articles from
metal blank.
Drawing is the most complicated of the three
sheet metal shaping process.

A drawing operations begins with a flat blank

which is transformed into a cup or shell.

The parent metal is subjected to severe plastic

deformation.
 Bending
Methods

Wiping
V Bending
Bending

Air Bending
Dies

Bottoming
Dies

In Case Of,
Air Bending Dies : Figure Please See Class Note (Punch does not bottom
out).
Bottoming Dies : Figure Please See Class Note ( Punch bottoms out ).
Air Bending : When the punch does not bottom
out then it is called air bending.

Advantages Of Air Bending Dies :

 One set of die & punch can be used to bend
w/p with different thickness to various angles
 Least pressure Is needed
Limitations Of Air Bending Dies :
 Less Accuracy
 Spring back is more.(tendency of material
to be straight for elastic property )
Bottoming Dies :
The punch is allowed to bottom out at the V bend dies . The
material is squeezed between the punch & die at the end of the
punch stroke .

Advantages of Bottoming Dies:

 Higher degree of accuracy
 Sharper inside corners
 Less spring back

Limitations of Bottoming Dies:

 Only one type of bending can be done by one set of
die and punch
 3-10 times more pressure than air bending
Wiping Dies:
The work piece is clamped to a die block by a spring loaded or
fluid cylinder pressure pad and the punch wipes the extended
material over one edge of the die.
Spring Back:

When the force used to create the bend is removed, the

recovery of the elastic region results in the occurrence
of spring back.

Spring back is the partial recovery of the work from the bend
to its geometry before the bending force was applied.

The magnitude of spring back depends largely on the

modulus of elasticity and the yield strength of the material.

Typically the results of spring back will only act to increase

the bend angle by a few degrees, however, all sheet metal
bending processes must consider the factor of spring back.
Methods of Preventing Spring Back:

 Over bending :
It is used for V Die air Bending . Some more bending is
made than required , then due to spring back it results in
desired bending.

 Corner Setting :
Spring back is prevented by coining (squeezing) the
metal slightly at the corner in order to relieve elastic stresses.
Methods Of Corner Setting :
 Making the edge of the punch slightly flat.
 Making the edge of the punch slightly rough.

 Ironing:
Methods Of Ironing:

Fig: 10-6 (a)

Fig:10-6(b) Fig:10-6(c)
Bend Allowance:
As a sheet metal is bent (Fig), its fibres experience a distortion
such that those nearer its outside, convex surface are forced to
stretch and come in tension, while the inner fibres come in
compression. Somewhere, in the cross section, there is a plane
which separates the tension and compression zones. This plane is
parallel to the surface around which the sheet is bending, and is
called neutral axis. The position of neutral axis depends on the
radius and angle of bend.

BEND ALLOWANCE

It is the length of the neutral axis in the bend,(Fig.) This

determines the blank length needed for a bent part.
Fig: BEND ALLOWANCE
Spring back prevention in U dies:
Determination of Bend Allowance :

B = (A/360) * 2π (IR + kt)

Where,
B = Bending allowance (arc length of
neutral axis in inch )
A = Bend angle ( in degree )
IR = Inside radius of bend ( in inch )
t = Metal thickness ( in inch )
k = constant for neutral axis location

Use , k = 0.33 for IR < 2t

k = 0.50 for IR > 2t
Determine the blank length of the following product :

For Figure Please See Class Note

Blank Length , L = L₁ + L₂ + L₃ + L₄ + L₅
L = 2L₁ + 2L₂ + L₃ ; [ L₁ = L₅ , L₂ = L₄ ]
L₁ = L₅ = 2 – (IR + t) = 2 – (3/ 6 + 1/8 ) = 1.6875 inch
L ₃ = 4 – 2(IR + t) = 4 – [ 2 (3/16 + 1/8) ] = 3.375inch
L₂ = L₄ = Bend Allowance
= (A/360) * 2π (IR + k *t)
= (90/360) * 2 * 3.1416 ( 3/16 + 0.33 * 1/8 )
= 0.3593

Here , IR = 3/16 , 2t = 2 * 1/8 = 4/16

So, IR <2t ; k = 0.33

L = 2L₁ + 2L₂ + L₃
= 2 * 1.6875 + 2 * 0.3593 + 3.375
= 7.4686 “
Bending Pressure /Force:

F = ( kLst² ) / W

Where,
F = Bending force required ( in tons )
L = Length of the bend part ( in inch )
s = Ultimate tensile strength (in ton / in² )
t = Metal thickness
k = Die opening Factor
w =Width between contact points on die

Cont,d
For Air bending
k = 1.33 ; when Die opening = 8*Material thickness
k = 1.20 ; when Die opening =16*Material thickness
For U bending and channel bending
k = 0.67 ;
For Wiping bending
k = 0.333
W is determined as shown in fig:

For both U bending & wiping ,

W = R₁ + R₂ + C , C = t
Problem : Determine the bending force in tons for a 45degree
bend in 24ST3 aluminium [with s = 65000 psi] ; 0.0621in
thickness ; 4ft long . The bend is air bending . The die opening
is 8 times the material thickness .
Solution : Here , k = 1.33 ; ( as the die opening is 8 times the
material thickness)
L = 4ft = 48inch
t = 0.0621 inch
s = 65000 psi
W = 8 * 0.0621 inch
Problem : Calculate the bending force in tons for the channel
bend. The bend length is 36 inch and die radius is 0.375 inch[ s =
61000 psi ](Fig please see class note)

Solution : Here , k = 0.67; ( For U bending )

L = 36inch
t = c = 1/8
s = 61000 psi
W = R₁ + R₂ + C
= .375 + 3/16 + 1/8 = 0.6875
Forming dies – types :

 Solid form dies

Pad type form dies
Curling dies
Embossing dies
Coining dies
Bulging dies
Assembly die
Drawing Dies :
Types of Drawing Dies :
 Shallow Drawing when h/d ≤ 0.5
 Deep Drawing when h/d > 0.5
Where ,
h = outside height
d = outside diameter

Percent Reduction and depth of draw :

Percent reduction , P = 100 ( 1 – d/D )
where P= Percentage reduction, d=ID of drawn shell, D= OD of
blank
Maximum allowable reduction in
one stroke / one draw ,
Theoritical ≈ 50 %
Practical ≈ 40 %
Example: The drawing of a 3 inch dia cup from a 5 in dia blank results in
a 40% reduction.
Percent reduction , P = 100 ( 1 – d/D ) = 100 ( 1 – 3/5 ) = 40 %
Table 10.4 : (Donaldson)
Possible number of reduction for a given ratio of shell height to
diameter :
Ratio h/d Numbers Reduction
of
1st Draw 2nd Draw 3rd Draw 4th Draw
reduction

Upto 0.75 1 40

0.75 – 1.5 2 40 25

1.5 – 3.0 3 40 25 15

3.0 – 4.5 4 40 25 15 10
Blank size determination :
The following equations can be used to calculate the blank size for cylindrical
shells of relatively thin metal.
D = Blank Diameter ,
d = Cup/Shell diameter (outside)
h = Cup/Shell height (outside) ,
r = Corner radius of punch

Blank size determination : (contd.)

√(d² + 4dh) If d/r ≥ 20

√((d² + 4dh) – 0.5 r) If d/r = 15~20

D=
√((d² + 4dh) – r) If d/r =10~15

√[(d–2r)²+4d(h-r)+2πr(d-0.7r)] If d/r < 10

Blank size determination : (contd.)

Use 1st equation when d/r is 20 or more

Use 2nd equation when d/r is between 15 - 20
Use 3rd equation when d/r is between 10 - 15
Use 4th equation when d/r is less than 10
Trim allowance: The extra material added to the blank diameter
is referred to as trim allowance

Final/ Actual Blank Size = D + Trim Allowance

General Rule for trim allowance : Add 1/8 inch for cup dia upto
1inch , then add 1/8inch per extra 1inch dia.
Example:0 .5 inch should be added to the blank diameter for a
cup diameter of 4 inch.
Drawing Force :
The amount of force required to shape a symmetrical cup by
drawing can be calculated from the following formula from
the ASTME “Die design handbook”.

P = πdts ( D/d – c )
Where ,
P = Drawing force/pressure.
d = Cup/shell outside diameter.
t = Metal thickness.
s = Yield strength of the material.
D = Blank diameter.
C = Constant to cover friction and bending( 0.6 to
0.7 for ductile materials)