1.

the smallest units of matter that participate in chemical reactions

2. the smallest living units in the human body.
The Chemistry of Life
Objectives
• Identify main chemical elements of the human body
• Describe ion, molecules, compounds
• Describe how valence electrons form chemical bonds
• Distinguish among ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds
• Describe various forms of energy, synthesis, decomposition, exchange
and reversible reactions
• Describe water, inorganic acids, bases, salts
• Distinguish among solutions, colloids, suspensions
• pH and buffer systems in homeostasis
Chemical Elements
• Element- substance that cannot be spilt into a simpler substance by
ordinary chemical means
• 118 elements
• 92 elements occur naturally
• 26 elements are present in the body
• Major elements (96%): Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
• Lesser elements (3.6%): Calcium, Phosphorous, Potassium, Sulfur, Sodium,
Chlorine, Magnesium, Iron
• Trace elements (0.4%) eg iodine
Main Chemical Elements in the Body
Major Chemical Elements in the Body
Chemical Element Significance
Oxygen (0) 65% Part of water and many organs (carbon-containing) molecules; used to generate ATP
Carbon © 18.5% Forms backbone chains and rings of all organic molecules; carbohydrates, lipis (fats),
proteins, and nuclei acids (DNA and RNA)
Hydrogen (H) 9.5% Constituent of water and most organic molecues, ionized forms (H) makes body fluids
more acidic.
Nitrogen (N) 3.2% Component of all proteins and nucleic acids
Lesser elements, 8.3%

Calcium Hardness of bones and teeth, ionized form needed for clotting, release of some
hormones, contraction of muscle etc
Phosphorous Nucleic acids and ATP, required for normal bone and tooth structure
Potassium Ionized form is most plentiful cation in ICF needed to generate action potentials
Sulfur Component of some vitamins and many proteins
Sodium Ionized form is the most plentiful anion in the ECF essential for maintaining water
balance
Chloride Ionized form is most plentiful anion in ECF
Magnesium Ionized form is needed for action of many enzymes
Iron Ionized forms Fe3, Fe2 are part of haemoglobin and some enzymes
 Atoms
• Atom – the smallest units of
matter that retain the properties
and characteristics of the
element
• Electons – negative charge,
move around nucleus and form
a negatively charged “cloud”
• Nucleus- central core
• Protons – positive charge
• Neutrons- neutral
Atomic mass and number
• atomic number - The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
Example: Oxygen: atomic number is 8, Sodium’s atomic number is 11

• Atomic Mass – sum of its protons and neutrons

Example: Sodium: 11 protons and 12 neutrons, atomic mass=____
• The standard unit for measuring the mass of atoms and their
subatomic particles is a dalton, also known as an atomic mass unit
(amu).
Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms of an element that have different numbers of
neutrons and therefore different mass numbers. In a sample of
oxygen, for example, most atoms have 8 neutrons, and a few have 9
or 10, but all have 8 protons and 8 electrons.
• Radioactive isotopes – unstable, nucleiundergo decay process. As
they decay, they emit radiation
• Clinical Correlation:
• Radon 222 as radioactive breakdown of uranium is associated with cancer
• Thallium 201 – monitor blood flow during stress test
• Iodine 131 – used to detect cancer of thyroid
• Cesium 137 – for treatment of cervical cancer
• Iridium 192 – for treatment of prostate cancer
Ions, molecules, compounds
• Ion is an atom that has a positive or negative charge because it has
unequal numbers of protons and electrons.
• Ionization is the process of giving up or gaining electrons.
• An ion of an atom is symbolized by writing its chemical symbol
followed by the number of its positive () or negative (–) charges.
• A molecule is formed by two or more atoms that share electrons;
same atoms or different atoms
• A compound is a substance that contains atoms of two or more
different elements
• A free radical is an atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron
in the outermost shell.
 free radicals

sources : antioxidants—substances that inactivate

ultraviolet radiation in sunlight
exposure to x-rays
some reactions that occur during normal
metabolic processes
carbon tetrachloride (a solvent used in dry
Cleaning)
oxygen-derived free radicals—is thought to
slow the pace of damage caused by free
radicals.
Sources: selenium, zinc, beta-carotene, and
vitamins C and E. Red, blue, or purple fruits
and vegetables
Review
1. All forms of matter are composed of chemical elements.
2. Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen make up about 96% of body
mass.
3. Each element is made up of small units called atoms. Atoms consist of a
nucleus, which contains protons and neutrons, plus electrons that move
about the nucleus in regions called electron shells.
4. The number of protons (the atomic number) distinguishes the atoms of
one element from those ofanother element.
5. The mass number of an atom is the sum of its protons and neutrons.
6. Different atoms of an element that have the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Radioactive isotopes are
unstable and decay.
Review
7. The atomic mass of an element is the average mass of all naturally
occurring isotopes of that element.
8. An atom that gives up or gains electrons becomes an ion—an atom that
has a positive or negative charge because it has unequal numbers of protons
and electrons. Positively charged ions are cations; negatively charged ions
are anions.
9. If two atoms share electrons, a molecule is formed. Compounds contain
atoms of two or more elements.
10. A free radical is an atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron in
its outermost shell. A common example is superoxide, an anion which is
formed by the addition of an electron to an oxygen molecule.
Chemical bonds
Chemical Bonds
• forces that hold together the atoms of a molecule or a compound
• depends on the number of electrons in its outermost shell, also called
the valence shell.
• octet rule (octet set of eight)
• 3 types of chemical bonds: ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and hydrogen
bonds
Ionic bond

• The force of attraction that

holds together ions
• An ionic compound that
breaks apart into positive and
negative ions in solution is
called an electrolyte
Covalent Bond

• two or more atoms

share electrons
rather than gaining
or losing them
• Most abundant in
the body
• Single, double,
triple
Hydrogen Bond
• hydrogen bond forms when a
hydrogen atom with a partial
positive charge () attracts the
partial negative charge () of
neighboring electronegative
atoms
• Weak bonds
• The cohesion of water
molecules creates a very high
surface tension
Chemical Bonds; Review
1. Forces of attraction called chemical bonds hold atoms together. These bonds result from
gaining, losing, or sharing electrons in the valence shell.
2. Most atoms become stable when they have an octet of eight electrons in their valence
(outermost) electron shell.
3. When the force of attraction between ions of opposite charge holds them together, an ionic
bond has formed.
4. In a covalent bond, atoms share pairs of valence electrons. Covalent bonds may be single,
double, or triple and either nonpolar or polar.
5. An atom of hydrogen that forms a polar covalent bond with an oxygen atom or a nitrogen atom
may also form a weaker bond, called a hydrogen bond, with an electronegative atom. The polar
covalent bond causes the hydrogen atom to have a partial positive charge () that attracts the
partial negative charge () of neighboring electronegative atoms, often oxygen or nitrogen.
Chemical Reactions
Chemical reaction
• A chemical reaction occurs when new bonds form or old bonds break
between atoms.
• Chemical reactions are the foundation of all life processes, and as we
have seen, the interactions of valence electrons are the basis of all
chemical reactions.
Forms of Energy and Chemical Reactions

Energy is the capacity

to do work

Potential energy – Kinetic energy – in

stored motion

Chemical energy in
bonds of compounds
and molecules
Law of conservation of Energy
• The total amount of energy present at the beginning and end of a chemical
reaction is the same.
• Although energy can be neither created nor destroyed, it may be converted
from one form to another.

• Energy Transfer
• Exergonic reactions (ex- out) release more energy than they absorb.
• Endergonic reactions (end- within) absorb more energy than they release.
• Example: A molecule of glucose broken down- the chemical energy in its
bonds can be used to produce as many as 32 molecules of ATP.
Activation Energy
Both the concentration of particles
and the temperature influence
the chance that a collision will occur
and cause a chemical
reaction.
Catalyst
• Catalysts are chemical compounds that speed up chemical reactions
by lowering the activation energy needed for a reaction to occur
• The most important catalysts in the body are enzymes.
Types of Chemical Reactions
1. Synthesis Reactions—Anabolism
• When two or more atoms, ions, or molecules combine to form new
and larger molecules, the processes are called synthesis reactions.
• A + B = AB

2. Decomposition Reactions—Catabolism
• Decomposition reactions split up large molecules into smaller atoms,
ions, or molecules. A decomposition reaction is expressed as follows:
AB = A + B
3. Exchange Reactions
• Consist of both synthesis and decomposition reactions. One type of
• exchange reaction works like this: AB + CD = AD + BC

4.Reversible reaction
• the products can revert to the original reactants
• AB a+B
5. Oxidation–reduction reactions are always parallel; when one
substance is oxidized, another is reduced at the same time.
Review
1. When atoms combine with or break apart from other atoms, a
chemical reaction occurs. The starting substances are the reactants,
and the ending ones are the products.
2. Energy, the capacity to do work, is of two principal kinds: potential
(stored) energy and kinetic energy (energy of motion).
3. Endergonic reactions require energy; exergonic reactions release
energy. ATP couples endergonic and exergonic reactions.
4. The initial energy investment needed to start a reaction is the
activation energy. Reactions are more likely when the concentrations
and the temperatures of the reacting particles are higher.
5. Catalysts accelerate chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.
Most catalysts in living organisms are protein molecules called enzymes.
6. Synthesis reactions involve the combination of reactants to produce larger
molecules. The reactions are anabolic and usually endergonic.
7. In decomposition reactions, a substance is broken down into smaller
molecules. The reactions are catabolic and usually exergonic.
8. Exchange reactions involve the replacement of one atom or atoms by
another atom or atoms.
9. In reversible reactions, end products can revert to the original reactants.
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
AND SOLUTIONS
Compounds
• Inorganic compounds- usually lack carbon, ionic or covalent bonds
• Water, salts, acids and bases
• Organic compounds – contain carbon, covalent bonds
• 38-48& of the human body
Objectives
At the end of the lecture, the student must be able to describe the
following:
• water
• pH
• Acid
• Base
• Normal blood pH
• Regulation of blood pH
Water
• Most important and abundant inorganic compound in living organims
• Polarity – most important property, excellent solvent
• Hydrogen ions are spontaneously generated in pure water by the
dissociation (ionization) of a small percentage of water molecules.
This process is called the autoionization of water.
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic solutes
• Solutes that are charged or contain polar covalent bonds are
hydrophilic (hydro- water; -philic loving), which means they dissolve
easily in water. Ex. Sugar and salt
• Molecules that contain mainly nonpolar covalent bonds, by contrast,
are hydrophobic (-phobic fearing). They are not very water-soluble.
Examples: animal fats and vegetable oils
Solutions, colloids and suspensions
• A mixture is a combination of elements or compounds that are
physically blended together but not bound by chemical bonds
• Three common liquid mixtures are solutions, colloids, and
suspensions.
• Colloid: solute particles in a colloid are large enough to scatter light ex milk
• Suspension: solutes settle out after some time. Ex blood
 H20

H+ OH-
pH, Acids, Bases
• pH: The measure of the Hydrogen ion (H+) concentration
• Solutions are classified as acidic or basic based on their hydrogen ion
concentration relative to pure water
• Acid: Solution with a higher concentration of hydrogen ions than
pure water
• Proton donor
• Base: Solution with a lower concentration of hydrogen than pure
water
• Proton acceptor
• salt, when dissolved in water, dissociates into cations and anions,
neither of which is H or OH
The pH scale
• The pH scale is used to rank
solutions in terms of acidity
or basicity (alkalinity)
• Below 7 = acidic
• Above 7= alkaline
Regulation of Blood pH
1. Respiratory system
2. Renal system
3. Buffer systems: plasma proteins, phosphate, bicarbonate
Buffer
• Humans need to maintain a narrow range of pH in order to survive
• Normal pH of blood: 7.35-7.45
• Buffers resist changes in pH
• 1. Inorganic compounds usually are small and usually lack carbon. Organic
substances always contain carbon, usually contain hydrogen, and always have
covalent bonds.
• 2. Water is the most abundant substance in the body. It is an excellent solvent
and suspending medium, participates in hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis
reactions, and serves as a lubricant. Because of its many hydrogen bonds, water
molecules are cohesive, which causes a high surface tension. Water also has a
high capacity for absorbing heat and a high heat of vaporization.
• 3. Inorganic acids, bases, and salts dissociate into ions in water. An acid ionizes
into hydrogen ions (H) and anions and is a proton donor; many bases ionize into
cations and hydroxide ions (OH), and all are proton acceptors. A salt ionizes into
neither H nor OH.
• 4. Mixtures are combinations of elements or compounds that are physically blended
together but are not bound by chemical bonds. Solutions, colloids, and suspensions are
mixtures with different properties.
• 5. Two ways to express the concentration of a solution are percentage (mass per
volume), expressed ingrams per 100 mL of a solution, and moles per liter. A mole
(abbreviated mol) is the amount in grams of any substance that has a mass equal to the
combined atomic mass of all its atoms.
• 6. The pH of body fluids must remain fairly constant for the body to maintain
homeostasis. On the pH scale, 7 represents neutrality. Values below 7 indicate acidic
solutions, and values above 7 indicate alkaline solutions. Normal blood pH is 7.35–7.45.
• 7. Buffer systems remove or add protons (H) to help maintain pH homeostasis.
• 8. One important buffer system is the carbonic acid–bicarbonate buffer system. The
bicarbonate ion (HCO3 ) acts as a weak base and removes excess H, and carbonic acid
(H2CO3) acts as a weak acid and adds H.
Objectives met?
• Identify main chemical elements of the human body
• Describe ion, molecules, compounds
• Describe how valence electrons form chemical bonds
• Distinguish among ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds
• Describe various forms of energy, synthesis, decomposition, exchange
and reversible reactions
• Describe water, inorganic acids, bases, salts
• Distinguish among solutions, colloids, suspensions
• pH and buffer systems in homeostasis
•Thank you very much!