Ch.

# 29 Mechanical Separations

Why Separations are needed?

i) Separation of valuable chemicals

from mixtures;
ii) Removal of impurities from
raw materials specially in the ores
and agro-based raw materials;
iii) Purification of products and quality
enhancement;

UNIT OPERATIONS OF CHEMICAL

ENGINEERING, 7TH EDITION,
MCCABE, SMITH, HARRIOTT
Separation in
Human Life

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 Classification of separation process on the bases of
separating agent
1. ) Mechanical Processes
• An operation in which the components of a mixture are separated
mechanically or on the bases mechanical characteristics into two or
more individual components
• Mechanical Separations are applicable to heterogeneous mixtures,
not to homogenous solutions. The techniques are based on the
physical differences b/w the particles such as size, shape or density.
2. )Physical Processes
 Separation based on physical properties on the individual
components (e.g. distillation, absorption, adsorption, leaching and
solvent extraction)
a) Without involving thermal processes

b) Involving thermal processes

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3. ) Chemical Separation processes
 A phenomenon of separation of the constituent/s due to chemical
reaction/s
 Reactions may involve energy (i.e. Exothermal / Endodermal)

4. ) Thermodynamic separation processes:

 by utilizing thermodynamic properties,
 Either increase or decrease of total entropy of individual
components.
 ∑ Entropy of each component.

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 5.) Novel Techniques for Separation for process intensification,
energy conservation or quality improvement.
• Engineers innovate by conducting research to innovate compact, safe,
energy-efficient, and environment-friendly sustainable processes.

Dialysis , Electro Dialysis , Osmosis, Reverse osmosis, Ultrafiltration, Pressure swing

process, Membrane technology, molecular sieves and
Chromatographic separation technology.

What is the difference between osmosis and reverse osmosis?

Ans.: In osmosis, water moves from solvent to salt side. In reverse osmosis, water is
forced out of solute side by applying pressure.

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 Assignment # 3

Q. No. 1: Working principals, application in chemical industries of the fallowing novel

separation processes,
“Dialysis , Electro Dialysis , Osmosis, Reverse osmosis, Ultrafiltration, Pressure swing process,
membrane technology, molecular sieves and Chromatographic separation technology.”

Q. No. 2:
i. Discuss the importance and significance of the given mechanical separation
techniques with reference to specific chemicals/process industries.
ii. How can mechanical separation-oriented characterization be attributed for
quality management and production cost reduction ?
“Screening, Filtration, Flotation and Sedimentation, Clarification, Centrifugal separations,
Jigging, magnetic and electrostatic separations, Sonic processes, Agglomeration/ clustering”

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 Mechanical separation processes
Mechanical separation for heterogeneous mixtures include separation
of solid from gases, liquids and solids.

Introduction
Separations are extremely important in chemical
manufacturing,
Separation is divided into 2 basic classes,
i. Diffusional separation, that involves the transfer of
material between phases.
ii. Mechanical Separations (main preview of P.T.)
 Separation processes
Mechanical separation processes
Techniques of separation are based on physical properties of the particles e.g. size, shape,
viscosity and density of each component.

 Mechanical processes includes –

 Screening, Filtration, Flotation, and Sedimentation Clarification, Centrifugal separations, Jigging, magnetic
and electrostatic separations, Sonic processes, Agglomeration/ clustering
2 general methods
◦ Using any separating Agent: The use of screen, septum or porous membrane or
utilizing of difference of density e.g. sedimentation, solubility, wettability,
which retain one component and allows other to pass.
◦ Using specific property as an Agent electrical or magnetic characteristics or any other
properties
Particle Separation
Characteristic
Particle Separation Unit Operation
Characteristic
Electric conductivity Electric Separation
 Screening or Mechanical screening
Screening is the practice of taking granulated ore material and separating it into
multiple grades on the bases of particle size.
Efficient screening of particulate matter have wider Industrial application e.g.
cement, ceramic, mining and mineral processing, agriculture, pharmaceutical,
food, plastics, and recycling.
Screening & processing equipments,
Comparison of ideal and actual screen,
Screen Capacity,
Material balance over screen,
Particle Separation Characteristic
Density
 Mechanical separation
This technique is based upon the physical properties of particles such
as size, shape and density.
Two general methods in mechanical separations are,
Use of screen (Aim of this Chapter) or porous membrane
Utilization of differences between sedimentation rates
SCREENING MACHINES
During particle separation in most of the screens, particles drop
through the screen under the effect of gravity,
 in a few designs they are pushed or forced through the screen by
centrifugal force.
Coarse particles passes through the openings easily,
Fine particles need agitation, vibration, shaking, gyrated, rotation,
or any other mechanical aid,
 Hybridization with magnetic / electrical force.
 Classification of Screening Machines
Screening machines may be classified as under,
 Stationary screens and Grizzlies,
 Gyrating screens,
 Vibrating Screens,
Revolving Screens,
Shaking Screens,
Oscillating Screens
 a ) Gyrations in horizontal plane b) Gyrations in vertical plane
c) Gyrations at one end, shaking at other d) Shaking
e) Mechanically vibrated f) Electrically vibrated.

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 Stationary screens and Grizzlies
• A grizzly is a grid parallel metallic bars fixed in a stationary
frame.
• The slope and the path of the material are usually are
parallel to the bars,
• Space between the bars is 2 to 8 inch (50 to 200 mm )
• Suitable for very coarse feed, as from primary crusher,
directly falls on upper end of the grid,
• More effective for free flowing solids having few fine
particles.

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Grizzlies: Single stage
Grizzlies
 Consist of a set of parallel bars held
apart by spacers, having predetermined
opening.
The slope and path of the material is
usually parallel to the length of the bars.
 Suitable for coarse feed falls on the
upper end of the grid.
Large chunks roll and slide to the tails Multi-stage
discharge, small lumps falls through to a Grizzlies
separate collector.
Bars are made of manganese steel to
reduce wear, with spacing 2 to 8 inch.
Good with coarse, free flowing particles
containing only small amount of fines.
 Industrial screens is made of woven, wire, silk' or
plastic cloth, metal bars, perforated or slotted metal
that are wedge- shaped in cross section

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 Gyrating Screens:
 Gyrating means move or cause to move rapidly
in a circle or spiral,
Mainly consist of a set of screens that are
stacked one upon the other ( largest screen at the
top and smallest is at the bottom)
 Whole assembly is inclined at an adjustable
angle 16 to 30 degree along the horizontal axis.
 Feed is introduced at the top screen to separate
different fractions, undersize, or fines, pass
through the screen openings. A single screen can
separate into two fractions,
Casing and screen are gyrated in a vertical plane
about a horizontal axis,
 Mechanical Details of Gyrating Screens
 Gyrating Screens has an eccentric drive or weights that causes the shaker to
move in an orbital path and designed for the highest attainable quality at the
cost of a reduced feed rate.
 The material rolls over the screen & falls with the induction of gravity and
directional shifts.
 Rubber balls and trays provide an additional mechanical means to cause the
material to fall through.
 The balls also provide a throwing action for the material to find an open slot to
fall through.
 The shaker is set a shallow angle relative to the horizontal level plane. Usually,
no more than 2 to 5 degrees along the horizontal plane.
 These types of shakers are used for clean feeds i.e. final product will not
contain any oversize or any contamination.

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Gyrating Screens:
600-1800 rev/min, and screen dimensions
are 1.5 by 4 ft or 5 by 14 ft.
Between the screens, sometimes rubber
balls are also used, that are held in separate
compartment.
As the machine moves, the balls tend to free
the blocked surfaces by striking them.
Screen being plugged by the presence of
solid particles is said to be blinded.
 Revolving Screens/ Drum/Trammel:
Trammel screens consist up of cylindrical
frame surrounded by wire cloth or perforated
plate, open at both ends,
 Drum rotates at a slight angle with screen
panels around the diameter of the drum,
 Low efficiency and capacity.
The feed remains at the bottom of the drum
and as the drum rotates that keeps the screen
clean.
 Oversized product moves towards end of the
drum, while the undersized filter through the
screen into a casing set below.
Constructional details of Revolving
screens

Revolving screens Separator

Mechanically Shaking Screens:
Consist of rectangular frame which
holds wire, cloth or perforated plate,
 Slightly inclined and suspended by
loose rods or cables.
 Frame may be vibrated electrically or
mechanically.
The frame reciprocate between 2
adjustable positions by high speed
eccentrics .
Mechanical vibrations are transmitted
to the casing then to screens.
 Screens can be directly vibrated
electrically via an heavy-duty solenoid
 Vibrating Screens
High efficiency, high capacity equipment used for
very large particles, sizes that range from pebble
size materials,
 Materials are directly delivered on the screen
from the crushers (cone crusher, jaw crusher, or
hammer mill),
To facilitate washing of materials, water spray
system can be designed i.e. wet screening process.
Low maintenance cost,
Accuracy of sizing,
Less space to install is required.
 NOISE and DUST are 2 primary Safety
considerations which are harder to deal because of
the nature.
 Adequate devices for both dust and hearing
protection should be provided.
 Effectiveness of screens (screen efficiency)
and related calculation.
• Screening is a method of separating particles according to size alone screens
• Widely used on a large/industrial scale separation of particles according to
the sizes,
• The effectiveness of a screen is a measure of accuracy of a screen that how
close separation between undersize & oversize materials occurs,

• Effectiveness of screens i.e. classification of materials carried outsize

fraction, The method is applicable for particles of smaller size,

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Comparison of Ideal vs. Actual Screening
An Ideal screening would sharply separate the feed mix in
such a way that the smallest particle in the overflow would
be just larger than larger particle in the underflow.
 Ideal separation defines a cut diameter (Dpc), that marks
the point of separation between overpass and underpass
fractions and should be equal to aperture size of the screen.
 An ideal velocity of particles through the screen should
be in the range of 0.6 to. 0.9 m/s.
 Actual screen don’t perform a perfect separation about
the cut diameter.
Ideal vs actual screening
In actual practice exact separation can be achieved up to some extent only in
case of particles that are spherical in shape for a specific (Dpc or screen
opening)
Otherwise inaccuracy may be observed in the adjacent sieves, because of
variation in shape of particles,
 Needlelike or fibrous materials tend to form clusters of different sized
particles. To achieve optimum particle size separation for a wide range of feed
rates, high performance and self-cleaning separators are req
uired.
 Ideal Screening Measures
• An ideal screen sharply separates the feed in such a way
that the smallest particle in the overflow is just larger than
the largest particle in the underflow.
• Such an ideal separation would define a cut diameter, Dpc,
representing the point of separation between the fractions.
• For an ideal operation, a plot of screen opening against
cumulative fraction retained would have the standard
shape .
• As can be seen, the largest particle of the underflow has
the same size as the smallest particle of the overflow.

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• It has been observed that the overlap is smaller when
particles are spherical (or close to a spherical shape) and is
larger when particles are needle-like, fibrous or tend to
agglomerate.
• The main problems encountered in screen separation is
stickiness, sieve blockage, and agglomeration.
• All these problems increase exponentially as the screen
aperture decreases

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 DESIGN OF SCREENS FOR SEPARATION OF PARTICULATE
MATERIALS
The objective of a screening operation is to separate a feed stream into two
fractions, an underflow that is passed through the screen and an overflow that is
rejected by the screen.
• Right system for faultless Performance for specific feeds,
• Main Parameters for Design;
Nature of feed, Feed rate to the screen surface, Percent undersize and oversize,
Screen aperture, Bulk Density, stickiness of materials, Particle Shape (natural
sand & gravel or crushed stone or mineral ore). Percent open area of screening
medium selected.
• Appropriate Selection of Separation scheme based of the phases of the feed,
• Universal “rules of thumb” for optimum depth of bed, according to of aperture
size.
• Retention time and loading capacity for peak efficiency which influence
exponentially with bed depth.

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Classification of separation techniques according
to phases involved.
Type of mixture Techniques
Liquid–liquid Distillation Extraction Decantation Dialysis and
electro-dialysis Parametric pumping
Solid–solid Screening Leaching Flotation Air classification
Solid–gas Cycloning Air filtration Scrubbing Electrostatic
precipitation
Solid–liquid Sedimentation Centrifugation Filtration Membrane
separations

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 Material balance over screen
Simple material balance can be written over a screen which are useful in calculating
Ratios of the feed
Oversize
Underflow
Desired cut diameter
Let F, D, and B be the mass flow rates of the feed, overflow, and under flow respectively
Let xF, xD and xB be the mass fractions of oversize material in these three streams.
 Material balance over screen
The mass fractions of undersize material in the feed, overflow and
underflow are 1-xF, 1-xD and 1-xB
Since the total material fed to the screen must leave it either as
underflow or overflow
F= D+B
The material A in the feed must also leave in these two stream
and
FxF = DxD + BxB
Elimination of B from equation A and B gives
𝑫 𝒙𝑭 −𝒙𝑩
 =
𝑭 𝒙𝑫 −𝒙𝑩
𝑩 𝒙𝑫 −𝒙𝑭
 =
𝑭 𝒙𝑫 −𝒙𝑩
 Material balance over screen
Separations by screen are almost never perfect.
Some undersize particles are usually left in the material retained
on a given screen.
Sometimes oversize particles find their way through the screen
into the undersize.
Completeness of the separation depend on screen efficiency
 Various formulas have been proposed.
A uniform method of calculating overall efficiency however has
never been established.
 Screen effectiveness: A measure of success of the screen in
closely separating the feed into over size ( which is retained on
the screen) and under size

The effectiveness of a screen (often called screen efficiency) is a

quantitative measure of degree of separation of materials A and B.
If the screen functioned properly all of the material A would be in the
overflow and all of the material in B would be in underflow.
Screen effectiveness is the ratio of oversize material A that is actually in
the overflow to the amount of A entering with the feed.
These quantities are DxF and FxF respectively.
 Screen capacity
Quantity of material fed per unit time per unit area of the screen.
Kg/m2-sec
Capacity and efficiency HAVE INVERSE RELATION.
Efficiency depends on :
i. the rate of feed to the screening unit.
ii. the nature of the screening operation.
iii. undersize particle is a function of the number of times particles
strikes the screen surface and
iv. the probability of passage during a single contact.
If the screen is overloaded the number of contact is small and the chance
of passage on contact is reduced by the interference of the other
particles and efficiency drops
 Computation of screen effectiveness

A common measure of screen effectiveness is the ratio of oversize material A i.e.

actually in the overflow to the amount of A entering in the feed

Where EA is the screen effectiveness based on the oversize. Similarly an

effectiveness EB based on the undersize can be written as

A combines overall effectiveness is the product of the two individual ratios of EA and EB

Substituting D/F and B/F gives the following equation.

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 Screen capacity
The probability of passage of a particle through a screen
depends on the
i. fraction of the total surface represented by openings
ii. Ratio of the diameter of the particle to the width of an
opening in the screen.
iii. Number of contacts between the particle and the screen
surface.
Screen capacity
Efficiency can be improved at the expense of capacity
reduction,
 If loading is low, number of contacts between particles
and screen are increased which enhances the chances of
particles to pass through the screen on each contact.
 Under loaded screens i.e. progressively efficiency
decreases, [in general low for particle sizes smaller than
150 mesh (0.1mm)]
 Example 30.1 (McCabe smith 5th edition)
A quartz mixture having
the screen analysis shown
in table is screened through
a standard 10mesh screen.
The cumulative screen
analysis of overflow and
underflow are given in
table.
Calculate the mass ratios
of the overflow and
underflow to feed and
overall effectiveness of the
screen.
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 CHAPTER # 29 MECHNICAL SEPARATION
Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering (7 e)
By McCabe, W.L. Smith, J.C. & Harriot, P.

Sedimentation
• Sedimentation – A process of settling of the particles in a suspension
(fluid +solid particles) under the effect of gravity or due to any other
force.
• Rate of sedimentation depends upon the size, density of particles, and
physical properties of the fluids.
• The particle that settles from the suspension, known as sediment, and
the fluid is known as sludge.
• For example, sand and silt can be carried in suspension with the river
water due to high velocity in hilly areas and
• Eventually the slit, sand, and sedimentary rocks, sediment in plane areas
4 TYPES OF SEDIMENTATION PROCESSES:

Type 1
Dilutes, non-flocculent, free-settling
(every particle settles independently.)

Type 2
Dilute, flocculent (particles can
flocculate as they settle).

Type 3
Concentrated suspensions, zone
settling, hindered settling (sludge
thickening).

Type 4
Concentrated suspensions,
compression (sludge thickening).
Gravity sedimentation processes
Density difference is needed between particle and the fluid ,
When a particle moves in fluid, a number of forces act on the particle,
i.e. Gravity force, Buoyant Force and Drag Force.
Stokes’ Law- describes the influence of various resisting force on a particle moving through a viscous
fluid and the maximum velocity of a particle falling under gravity through a fluid.

Stokes’ Law
FD = 3π μ u0 Dp

Widely used for Primary treatment of sewage to remove

floating and settle-able solids by sedimentation
STOKES’S LAW -
 A law to calculate the settling velocities of small spherical particles in a fluid medium. (British
scientist Sir George G. Stokes in 1851)
 Derived by consideration of the forces acting on a particular particle as it sinks through a liquid
column under the influence of gravity .

Stoke's law based on the fallowing assumptions:

•There is no other particle nearby that would affect the flow

pattern.
•The motion of the particle is constant.
•The particle is spherical or sphericity may be known.
•The air velocity right at the particle surface is zero.
•The fluid is incompressible.

The law is important for the researches to select the correct microsphere to
optimize the performance of the particle in a solution, accuracy of data collected,
and precision of the fluid flow calculations.
• The settling velocity and settling time are inversely proportional to (diameter)2 of the
spherical
• The most critical variable is the difference in the densities (particle & liquid.) & also
Viscosity of the liquid

Fall or Settling Velocity :

Vt = gd2 (ρp - ρm)/18µ

Acceleration of Gravity :
g= 18 µ Vt /d2( ρp - ρm)

Particle Diameter :
d= 18 µ Vt /g (ρp - ρm)

Density of Medium :
ρm = ρp - 18 µ Vt/ d2
 What is the time of settlement of coarse particle of a
soil sample, of diameter (D) 0.5?
Take (settling velocity) V=0.905D2 and height of water
tank as 5 m.
a) 11.6 seconds
b) 72.8 seconds
c) 14 seconds
d) 22.1 seconds
Answer: d
Explanation: V=0.905(0.5)2=0.2263 m/sec
Time of settlement, T=h/v =5/0.2263=22.1 seconds
A mixture of fine sand, silt and clay
Gravity sedimentation process

Mechanical separations are based upon the sedimentation of solid particles or

liquid drops through the fluid, impelled either by,
Force of gravity or
Centrifugal force
In certain processes the objective of the sedimentation process is to remove
contaminants from the fluid (liquid or gas),
To recover the useful particles,
In some problems, particles are deliberately suspended in fluids to obtain
separation of particles into fractions differing in size or density.
Gravity sedimentation process
Many mechanical separations are based
on the sedimentation of solid particles or
liquid drops through the fluid, impelled or
caused either by,
Gravity
i. Force of gravity, or sedimentation.
ii. Centrifugal force.
In certain processes the objective of the
sedimentation process is to remove
contaminants from the fluid (liquid or gas),
To recover the useful particles,
In some problems, particles are
intentionally suspended in fluids to obtain
separation of particles into fractions
differing in size or density.
Centrifugal
sedimentation.
 Gravity sedimentation process stages
The particles initially at rest with respect to the fluid in which the particles
are immersed,
Particles move through the fluid by an external force (e.g. gravity),
 Motion of the particles can be divided into two stages,
i. First stage is the short period of acceleration during which velocity
increases from zero to terminal falling velocity.
ii. Second stage- when the particle is at its terminal falling velocity.
Initial acceleration affects are short range usually in the order of tens of
second or less.
Some separation methods, jigging and gravity separation, depends upon
the particle’s behaviour during acceleration period.
 sedimentation process
The phenomena of falling of suspended particles through the liquid;
• Basic Principles of Sedimentation. Particles or cells
in a liquid suspension sediment at the bottom of a
container due to gravity.
• The time required for such separation is usually
depend upon densities ( ρp; ρL )of suspended
particles and liquid, size of the particles, drag
coefficient and acceleration of gravity.
• The rate of sedimentation is dependent upon the
applied centrifugal field
• Sedimentation takes place in different zones;
Application of sedimentation,
i. Physical processes ( weathering , erosion)
ii. Chemical processes ( water purification, sludge
treatment)
iii. Biological processes (Bio-chemical transformation,
Metabolism, photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic
compounds like carbohydrates)
i. Physiological activities of plants & animals
 Types of gravity sedimentation:

Gravity separation can obviously be applied, if particles density is greater than the fluid.
1) Produce a clarified (free of suspended solids) effluent.
2) Produce a highly concentrated solid sludge

Type I (Discrete sedimentation):

• Unhindered settling that removes the discrete particles
in a very low concentration without interference from
nearby particles.
• In general, if the concentration of the solutions is less
than 500 mg/L total suspended solids,
sedimentation will be considered discrete.
•Occurs in dilute suspensions, particles which have very
little interaction with each other as they settle.
•Particles settle according to Stokes law
•Design parameter is surface overflow rate.
Type II (Coagulation & Flocculent sedimentation

The coagulation & flocculation in water and wastewater

treatment processes are a preliminary or intermediary step
between water or wastewater treatment processes like
filtration and sedimentation.

Difference between flocculation and coagulation?

• Basically, coagulation is a process of addition
of coagulant to destabilize a stabilized charged particle.
• Flocculation is a mixing technique that promotes
agglomeration and assists in the settling of particles. ...

The intensity or flocculation time is used to

describe
i. Rate of Particles flocculation or settling,
ii. Flocculating particle velocity increase with time,
Sedimentation Calculations
Differential settling method

• For different particles A & B, settling in Stokes regime, equations becomes;

Strokes law can be used to determine the viscosity of the fluid by dropping a spherical
object in it measuring the terminal velocity of the object in the fluid. For example, 3inch
diameter glass ball (ρ=2500 Kh/m3) is dropped into a fluid whose density is 875 Kg/m3, and
the terminal velocity is measured to be 0.16 m/s. Disregarding the wall effects, determine
the viscosity of the fluid.

Terminal Velocity :
Vt = gd2 (ρp - ρm)/18µ
EXAMPLE
 Types of Gravity sedimentation process
Clarifiers:
 A settling tank with mechanical means for
continuous removal of solids being deposited
by sedimentation.
 Generally used to remove solid particulates
or suspended solids from liquid for
clarification (or) thickening
 Concentrated impurities, discharged from
the bottom of the tank are known as sludge,
 while the particles that float to the surface of
the liquid are called scum or filth.
A settler that virtually removes all the
particle from a liquid is called as
clarifier.
Classifier:
A device that separates the solids into two fractions is called as classifier.
Used for separating solids of different characteristics by controlled rates of settling.
 Materials can be classified hydraulically or
pneumatically
 Centrifugal Separation
• .

Applications of centrifugal
separation

• Suitable for the components

having narrow densities,
• Separating particles from an
air-flow using cyclonic
separation,
• Removing fat from milk to
produce skimmed milk,
• Separating chalk powder from
water
• Analysis of urine and blood
components in forensic and
research laboratories,
• Useful technique to purify
proteins, vitamins etc.

65
 Centrifugal sedimentation process
• Centrifugal separator - a machine that
separates two mixed components of
different density (as cream in milk or
oil in sludge),
• Centrifugal force accelerates
separation & divides the mixture in 2
distinct phases during centrifugation.

• Centrifugation is a common method to

enrich uranium based on the slight
mass difference between U238 and U235
 Differential settling method-

a) In addition to particle size, density and concentration, and fluid viscosity, other less obvious factors
affect the sedimentation rate. These include particle shape and orientation, convection currents in the
surrounding fluid, and chemical pretreatment of the feed suspension,
b) When a mixture of dispersed particles which are more dense than the fluid in a column is
fed on top of a column, the particles do not settle individually according to Stokes' Law,

c)The bulk settling of the particles occur by differential sedimentation is commonly called
"streaming" or "sedimentation instability”

All particles of light component B having diameters between DP1 and DP2 will settle
more slowly than any particle of the heavy substance A and can be obtained as a
pure fraction.
Any particle of substance A having diameters between DP3 and DP4 settle faster than
any particle of substance B and can also be obtained as a pure fraction.
But any light particle having a diameter between DP2 and DP4 settles at the same
speed as a particle of substance A in the size range between DP1 and DP3, as a result
mixed fraction is obtained.
Differential settling method
Principle of CENTRIFUGAL SEDIMENTATION
Device Rotates
To increase the settling rate, the force of gravity acting
on the particle, may be replaced by a much stronger
centrifugal force.
Centrifugal sedimentation have great effectiveness in
case of fine drops separation, and their much smaller
size for a given capacity as compared to the gravity
based sedimentation process.
 Two main categories of centrifugal sedimentation i.e.
cyclone separators and centrifuges.
Dust laden air travels in a spiral path around and down
the cylindrical body of the cyclone.
Centrifugal force tends to move the particles towards
the wall, and the particles that move towards the wall
move towards the bottom.
• A cyclonic separation is a method of removing
particulates from an air, gas or liquid stream,
without the use of filters, through vortex separation.
• A high speed rotating air flows within a cylindrical or
conical container called a cyclone.
• Air flows in a helical pattern entering in the top
(wider) of the cyclone which leaves from the bottom
(narrow) the cyclone in a straight at the centre of
the cyclone and out the top.
• Larger (denser) particles in the rotating stream have
too much inertia to follow the tight curve of the
stream, and strike the outside wall, then fall to the
bottom of the cyclone where they can be removed.
• In a conical system, as the rotating flow moves
towards the narrow end of the cyclone, the
rotational radius of the stream is reduced, thus
separating smaller and smaller particles.
 Separation from Gases; cyclones
Most centrifugal separators to remove particles from gas stream
contain no moving part, as shown in fig. 29.38
• Mainly consist of a vertical cylinder with a conical bottom, a
tangential inlet near the top and outlet for dust at the
bottom of the cone
• The inlet is usually rectangular, outlet pipe is extended into
the cylinder to prevent short circuiting of air from inlet to
outlet
• The incoming dust with air travel in a spiral path around and
down the cylindrical body of the cyclone
• The centrifugal force developed in the vertex tend to move
the particles around the wall and the particles fall down into
the cone and are collected
• The cyclone is basically is the settling device in which a
strong centrifugal force acts radially as compared to weak
gravitational force acting vertically
Separation Factor:
Ratio of centrifugal force to the force of gravity is called as ‘Separation Factor’.
Large diameter cyclone has much lower separation factor.
Velocities usually above 50 to 70 ft/sec are usually impractical because of high pressure
drop and increased abrasive wear.
Small diameter cyclones can also operate in parallel to handle large volumes.
 COLLECTION EFFICIENCY OF CYCLONES
A cyclone separator is a device that separates particles from a gas streams using
centrifugal force.

EFFICIENCY OF CYCLONES
depends upon
i)feed rates,
ii ) cyclone diameter & height,
iii) pressure drop
iv) entering velocity, density of
particles, viscosity of feed,
v) loading rate & leakages from
the cyclone,
Maximum achievable efficiency
is 80 to 90 % for particles larger
than 15 to 20 micron.

29.39
 Discussion on Fig. 29.39
COLLECTION EFFICIENCY OF CYCLONES

 Collection efficiency highly depends upon the particles trajectories with in the
cyclone,
 Particles trajectories are difficult to measure but can be determined by empirical
equations,
Typical data for commercial cyclones is plotted in fig. 29.39, which shows a strong
effect of particle size and cyclone diameter on collection efficiency.
 Fig 29.39 indicates that cyclones efficiency decreases with the decrease of
particle size,
 Collection efficiency cyclones increases with the particle density as the
temperature increases and decreases for gases because the density of gases
increase with the rise of temperature.
Cyclones efficiency is higher at the full load as compared to partial load,
Sometimes 2 identical cyclones are used in series but efficiency of the 2nd cyclone
is less as compared to 1st one.
• A trajectory or flight path is the path that a
massive object in motion follows through
space as a function of time,
• A complete trajectory is defined by position
and momentum, simultaneously.

 Settling time is limited by the

residence time of the liquid in the
bowl,
 At the end of this time let the
particle be at a distance ‘rB‘ from
the axis of rotation,
 If rB < r2 the particles leaves the bowl 29.45
with liquid ,

 If rB = r2 , the particle deposits on

bowl’s wall and removed from the liquid,
Cut Point:
• A cut point is defined as the diameter that just reaches one half the distance
between r1 and r2.
• If Dpc is the cut diameter, a particle of this size moves a distance y=(r2-r1)/2,
during the settling time allowed.
• If the particle of Dpc is to be removed, it must travel and reach the bowl wall in
the available time, thus Rb=R2 and Ra = (R1+R2)/2, then the equation becomes,

qc volumetric flow rate at cut diameter,

for Practical conditions flow rates must be kept higher than qc
 micron
micron

Important In the field of environmental engineering,

 Knowledge of cyclone collection efficiency is essential to design & analysis the
performance of coal power plants,
 Estimation of particle removal rate from exhaust streams is a key factor to
determine environmental impact analysis.
 The higher values of ”η” are preferred,
 Collection efficiency (i.e. rate of particle removal) helps the engineers to predict
environmental conditions.
 Design of Sedimenting Centrifuge

Estimation of terminal velocity of liquid in the bowl & volumetric flow rates,

29.76

Equ. 29.76

29.77

Equ. 29.76

29.78
 Calculation of residence time and qc
If thickness of layer becomes too small, that the above equation becomes
indeterminate, in these conditions the settling velocity can be considered
constant and given by,

29.80

29.81

29.82

Combining Eqs. 29.77 to 29.80 and solving for qc gives

29.83
 Sigma value for Scale-up of centrifuges

• qc - volumetric flow rate at cut diameter , ug is terminal settling velocity of the particles under gravity
settling
• Physically sigma is the cross sectional area of the gravity settling tank of same separation capacity as the
centrifuge
• Sigma value is a characteristic of the centrifuge and Ug is the terminal velocity
of the particle under gravity conditions,
• Σ is the cross sectional area of gravity settling device of same capacity
as the centrifuge,
• To estimate the size of the cyclone required to replace gravity by centrifugal sedimentation .
• For application to industrial centrifuges
Liquid solids separations; hydro-cyclones
Definition and Basic Function

• A hydro cyclone (is a device to classify, separate or

sort particles in a liquid suspension based on the
ratio of their centripetal force to fluid resistance.

• Used for separating solids from liquids, are called

hydro cyclones or hydro clones,

• Hydro cyclones can also separate 2 liquids having

different densities’’

• Also works as thickeners as well classifiers.

Functioning of hydro cyclones
Feed enters tangentially at high velocity near the top
and liquid follows a spiral path in the vessel, forming
a strong downward vortex.
Large or heavy particles separate to the wall which
fall downward and discharges from the cyclone as a
slurry or paste.
A variable discharge orifice controls the consistency
of the under flow.
 Liquid goes back upward in an inner vortex and
leaves through the central discharge pipe, which is
known as vortex finder.
The pressure drop ∆p in a hydroclone varies with
the feed rate raised to power between 2.0 to 3.3.
For a given pressure drop a small diameter gives
better separation than a large one.
 Smaller hydrocyclones are preferred.
Operational Details of hydro cyclones
 Type of hydro-cyclones separators

Liquid solid separations i.e. hydro-cyclones

Centrifugal decanters
Tubular centrifuge
Disk centrifuge
Nozzle discharge centrifuge
Sludge operators
 Criteria to Achieve Ideal Sedimentation

• Sufficient range of densities between particles & fluid,

• Does not form solutions of high viscosity in the desired density
range;
• Adequate depth( for appropriate residence time) to sediment
particles within the medium,
• Does not affect the biological activity of the sample,
• Nontoxic and not metabolized or react during centrifuging,
• Exhibits a property that can be used as a measure of concentration
• Easily removable from the purified product.,
• Minimum effect of eddies on the settled particles,
• Reasonable cost with ease of maintenance,
No single compound can satisfy all of the above criteria
 Flocculation & Coagulation
 In colloid chemistry, flocculation is a process
by which fine particulates combine together
due to an agent { commonly know as floc/
Flocculants},
 Flocking agents are the chemicals that
promote flocculation by colliding the
suspended particles in liquids to aggregate,
 Flocculated matter may float to the top of the
liquid (creaming), or settle down
(sedimentation) which can be separated by
filtration,
In water treatment Flocculation improves
filterability, otherwise tiny Suspended solids
(micrometres in diameter) can not settle under
gravity or settle very slowly for practical
operation.
Fortunately, agglomerates or clusters
particles, settle at reasonable rates and ease
out the separation process.
 Coagulation-flocculation
• Conventional pre-treatment method (typically
in combination with sedimentation and
filtration),
• used to separate the suspended and dissolved
compounds ( turbidity ) from the water in
• Coagulation i.e. the clotting of blood to form
solid masses, or bigger clots.
• More than 30 types of cells and substances in
blood affect clotting. Medicines to control
clotting and platelets in human body ,
Coagulation and flocculation are important
processes in water treatment with
coagulation to destabilize particles through
chemical reaction between coagulant and
colloids, and flocculation to transport the
destabilized particles ,
 Batch sedimentation or Flocculation
• The process by which scattered fine particles clot-like masses or precipitate into small lumps..
• Flocculation : the process of agglomeration of destabilized particles to such a size that can be separated by
sedimentation or by filtration
• Flocculation occurs due to a chemical reaction between 2 component particles by the addition of an agent e.g.
salt + Alums + water
Flocculation occurs in several stages or
in different zones,
 Batch sedimentation or Flocculation
is suitable, when the concentration
of solids is high enough that
sedimentation of individual particles
or flocs is hindered by other solids,
At first the solid is uniformly
distributed and well mixed in the
liquid,
After some time the matter settle
down or floats or divided in 2
distinct zones,
 Filtration
 Filtration is a mechanical, physical or biological operation to separate solids from fluids
(liquids or gases) by passing through a medium in which only the fluid can pass,
 The fluid that passes through is called the filtrate,

• Filtration - Separation of solids from fluids using a porous medium

which retains solids but allows fluids to pass.
• The slurry/ suspension (i.e. solid + liquid) can be filtered;
• The accumulation of solids on the filter is called filter cake,
• The clear fluid passing through the filter is called filtrate.
 Applications of Filtration
Filtration is used to separate particles and fluid in a suspension, Fluids can be a liquid, a gas
Depending on the application, either one or both of the components may be isolated.
• Filtration, as a physical operation is very important for the separation or purification of materials ;
• A solvent is chosen which dissolves one component, while not dissolving the other.
• Filtration is an important and widely used unit operation of chemical engineering &
simultaneously applied with other unit operations to process materials, e.g.
bio-filter combined with other filters for biological digestion.
• Filtration differs from sieving, where separation occurs at a single perforated layer (a sieve). In
• Filtration, a multilayer lattice retains those particles that are unable to follow the indirect channel
of the filter.
• Filtration differs from removal of magnetic separation because there is no filter medium in
magnetic separation .
 CLASSIFIED APPLICAIONS OF FILTRATION
A wide range applications in process, chemical manufacturing & Nuclear fuels purification,
some classified applications are enlisted below,
Dairy Industry
Concentration, purification and Demineralization of Lactose – Nano-filtration membranes are preferred;
Food & Beverage & Plant Extracts
For syrup concentration- nano-filtration can be employed to reduce both costs & processing time.
Textile & Dyes
For the concentration and desalination of dyes used in the textile industry,
Industrial Processes, Seawater and Wastewater
– For selective removal of salts found in water or seawater to prevent scaling ,
Biotech/Pharmaceutical
• Filtration technology is employed in separation, concentration, and production of
hormones and antibiotics.
• Blood serum and other clotting compounds can be separated by filtration,
 Factors Affecting Filtration
Filtration is affected by the characteristics of the slurry,
including:
1- The properties of the liquid , such as density, viscosity, and
corrosiveness.
2- The properties of the solid, for example, particle shape,
particle size, particle size distribution, and the rigidity or
compressibility of the solid.
3- The proportion of solids in the slurry.
4- Whether the objective is to collect the solid, the liquid ,or
both.
5- Whether the solids have to be washed free from the liquid
or a solute.
 Difference Between Permeable And Semi Permeable Membrane

• Permeable membrane allow molecules of all sizes to pass,

• Permeable membrane (also known as porous or pervious surfaces) allow
water to penetrate into the soil to filter out pollutants and recharge the water
table.
• Example of a permeable membrane in nature is the cell wall in plant cells.
They are fully permeable to water, molecules, and proteins.
• semi-permeable membrane allow certain molecules or ions to pass through.
is a type of biological or synthetic, polymeric membrane.
• Example of Semi-permeable: Molecules hydrocarbons and oxygen can cross
the membrane but large molecules ( e.g. glucose and other sugars) cannot.
Water can pass through the lipids.
• Impermeable/impervious surfaces are solid surfaces that don't allow water to
penetrate, forcing it to run off.
 (precoat filtration)
or expanded perlite

10/31/2019 WATER FILTRATION 99

 Rate of Filtration:
• The flow of Fluid through a filter follows the basic rules that govern the
flow of any liquid/gas through the medium offering resistance.
• The rate of filtration
2
may be expressed as volume (liters) per unit time
(dv/dt), or Kg/m /Hr.
• Rate of filtration in terms of quantities that can be measured, found from
tables, or in some cases estimated
• Generally the larger the particle size, higher the rate of filteration,and
lower the cake resistance,
• The factors affecting rate of filtration may include specific gravity of
solids, absences of slimes ( pasty materials) and feed concentration, is
known as
Darcy”s law and may be expressed as:
• dV / dt = KA P /ul
where
V= volume of filtrate, t = time of filtration ,
K = constant for the filter medium and filter cake ,
A = area of filter medium ,
P = pressure drop across the filter medium and filter cake ,
u = viscosity of the filtrate , and l = thickness of cake.
Factors affecting rate of filtration

1- Permeability coefficient: The constant (K) represents the resistance of

both the filter medium and the filter cake. As the thickness of the cake
increase, the rate of filtration will decrease. Also the surface area of the
particles .the porosity of the cake, and rigidity or compressibility of the
particles could affect the permeability of the cake.

2- Area of filter medium: The total volume of filtrate flowing from the
filter will be proportional to the area of the filter. The area can be
increased by using larger filters. In the rotary drum filter, the continuous
removal of the filter cake will give an infinite area for filtration.
3- Pressure drop;
The rate of filtration is proportional to the pressure difference across both
the filter medium and filter cake.

The pressure drop can be achieved in a number of ways:

• Gravity: A pressure difference could be obtained by maintaining a
head of slurry above the filter medium. The pressure developed will
depend on the density of the slurry.
• Vacuum: The pressure below the filter medium may be reduced
below atmospheric pressure by connecting the filtrate receiver to a
vacuum pump and creating a pressure difference across the filter.
• Pressure: The simplest method being to pump the slurry into the
filter under pressure.
• Centrifugal force: The gravitational force could be replaced by
centrifugal force in particle separation,
• 4- Viscosity of filtrate:
• It would be expect that an increase in the viscosity of the filtrate will increase the resistance of
flow , so that the rate of filtration is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid.
• This problem can be overcome by two methods:
• a- The rate of filtration may be increased by raising the temperature of the liquid, which lowers its
viscosity. However, it is not practicable if thermo-sensitive materials are involved or if the filtrate is
volatile.
• b- Dilution is another alternative but the rate must be doubled.

• 5- Thickness of filter cake;

• The rate of flow of the filtrate through the filter cake is inversely proportional to thickness of the
cake. Preliminary decantation may be useful to decrease the amount of the solids.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FILTRATION EQUIPMENTS
i. Without external force e.g. Gravity filters
ii. With external force e.g. vacuum, Pressure or centrifuge filters
 CLASSIFICATION OF FILTER MEDIA
1- Woven filters:
• wire screening (fabrics of cotton, wool, nylon.)
• Wire screening (any metal preferably stainless steel because of its sustainability)
2- Non- woven filters: Filter paper (controlled porosity, limited absorption
characteristic, and low cost.)
3- Membrane filters:
• micro-filtration (thin membrane with millions of pores per square centimeter)
• made of various esters of cellulose, or from nylon, Teflon, polyvinyl chloride. The filter is
4-Porous plates:
• perforated metal or rubber plates, natural porous materials such as stone, porcelain or
ceramics, and sintered glass.
 Industrial Filters

Four main groups :

• A- Gravity filters. B- Vacuum filters
• C- Pressure filters. D- Centrifugal filters.

A-Gravity filters,
• Employing thick granular beds e.g. Sand Filter
• widely used in water filtration.
 B- Vacuum filters Rotary vacuum filter
• Vacuum filters for higher pressure
differentials than gravity filters.
• Suction filtration is a chemistry laboratory
which accelerate rate of filtration
• Rotary vacuum filter are extensively used
in industries.
Advantages:
• The cake can be washed by immersing
the filter in a vessel of Water.

• Removal of the cake is facilitated by the

use or reverse air flow.
String-discharge rotary drum filter
Advantages & disadvantages of rotary drum filter
Advantages
• The rotary filter is automatic, continuous in operation, labour costs are
very low.
• The filter has a large capacity , so it is suitable for highly concentrated
solutions.
• Variation of the speed of rotation enables the cake thickness to be
controlled.

Disadvantages:
• The rotary filter is a complex, with moving parts and expensive,.
• Some accessories are connected ,e.g, a vacuum pump, vacuum
receivers , slurry pumps and agitators .
 C- Pressure Filters

• Due to the formation of cakes of low permeability, higher pressure difference

is provided for effective filtration,
• However, high pressures, enhance operational cast.
• Examples are the sweet land filter, plate and frame filter press.
Plate and Frame Press
 D- Centrifugal Filters
A centrifuge consists of a basket in which mixture of solid and
liquid , or mixture of two liquids is rotated at high speed so that it is
separated into its constituents by the action of centrifugal force.

• Types of baskets:
A- Imperforated, in which the solid particles, sediment to the wall.
B- Perforated basket, in which the liquid passes out through the
holes.

,.
 Fluidization
• Fluidization is a process similar to liquefaction
whereby a granular material is converted from a
static solid-like state to a dynamic fluid-like state.
• This process occurs when a fluid (liquid or gas) is
passed up through the granular material.
FLUIDIZATION USED FOR
• Fluidised beds are used for several purposes, such
as
• Solid – Solid/ liquid/gas separation
• Fluidized bed reactors (types of chemical
reactors),
• Fluid catalytic cracking,
• fluidized bed combustion,
• Heat or mass transfer or interface modification,
 TYPES OF FLUIDIZATION
1 2 3 4 5 6

2 types of fluidization:
(1) particulate fluidization - bed remains homogeneous, intimate
contact between gas & solid
(2) bubbling fluidization - bubbles with only a small % of gas passes in the
spaces between particles, little contact between bubbles & particles
 Particulate Fluidization
• Particles are fluidized by a liquid or a gas under high pressure, is
known as particulate fluidization.

• During particulate fluidization a uniform expansion of the bed at high

velocities occur.

• From a fluid mechanics perspective, pressure drop is required to

flow liquid or gas through the column at a specific flow rate,

• The lowest velocity at which fluidization starts is the minimum

fluidization velocity.

• Fluidization is a balance of gravity, drag and buoyant forces.

 •Particulate Fluidization
• Particles become fluidized under
high pressure of liquid or gas, is
called particulate fluidization.

• In Particulate fluidization, the

expansion of the bed at different
velocities can be characterized in
six distinct stages,
Transition from packed bed to Fluidized bed in
Particulate fluidization

• When particles in a fluidized bed are

individually suspended in the fluidizing fluid
(liquid/gas),
• A slight increase in gas velocity, to increase
the pressure drop, required to disengage the
particles from each other from the intermeshed
fixed-bed particles.

• Once the particles, just disengaged, further

increase in gas velocity fluidize the bed, the
pressure drop rises slightly until slugging and
entrainment occurs.

• For fluidized bed pressure drop vs

superficial velocity become constant
contrary to packed bed.
.
Pressure Loss Particulate Fluidization
• When a fluid flows upwards through a bed of particles, the
pressure loss occurs due to frictional & bed resistance,

• The force balance across the fluidized bed cause a pressure loss.

• Pressure loss across the particles bed is equal to the apparent

weight of the particles per unit area of the bed.

Driving force in fluidization

i. To move the particles different forces plays a vital role in particulate fluidization,
ii. Motion of particles within fluid, controls the fluidization process
 VITAL FORCES IN FLUIDIZATION

Compressive force (buoyancy)

Gravity or centrifugal force

Resistive forces e.g.

i. Viscous forces
ii. Inertial force
iii. Friction forces between particles
iv. Friction forces particles - wall
v. Impact between particles Influence of all
vi. Impact particles - wall resistive forces is
vii. Clustering of particles due to shape combined in Drag
viii. Adhesive / repulsive forces Coefficient,
Pressure loss measurement
across the fluidized bed
 FLUIDIZATION CHARACTERISTICS
A fluid is passed at a very low velocity up through a bed of solid,
particles do not move (fixed bed)

VO
At high enough velocity fluid drag plus buoyancy overcomes the gravity force so
particle start
 to move/suspended and the bed expands (Fluidized Bed).
 Force Balance Acting On A Solid Particle Moving in a Fluid

3 forces acting on a solid particle moving in a fluid :

Drag force Buoyant force

External force

1. external force - gravitational or centrifugal force

2. buoyant force - acts parallel to external force but in the opposite direction
3. drag force – the forced caused by the frictional resistance / relative motion
between the particle and the fluid,

Drag: the force in the direction of flow exerted by the fluid on the solid
Terminal velocity, ut

Drag force Buoyant

force

External force, gravity

Terminal velocity, ut when the sum of drag force (Fd) and buoyancy
equals the downward force of gravity (FG) acting on the solid particle . or
Terminal velocity, ut means the velocity at which the net force on an
object is zero, the object has zero acceleration.

In fluid dynamics, an object is moving at its terminal velocity

if its speed is constant due to the limiting/ retarding force
exerted by the fluid through which it is moving.
• Terminal velocity is the highest velocity attainable by a
Terminal velocity, ut
particles as it falls through a fluid (air is the most
common example).
• It occurs when the sum of the drag force (Fd) and the
buoyancy is equal to the downward force of gravity (FG)
acting on the object
• The particle becomes stagnant particle for a fraction of a
second.
• Ultimately, downward force dominates
and start to move in downward direction,

Free Settling – when a falling particle is not influenced by;

i. the boundaries of the container, and
ii. from other particles
(due to a sufficient distance b/w the particle-container & particle - particle).
Hindered Settling – when the fall is hindered by other particles because of the closeness of the particles.
CD hindered settling > CD free settling
Force Balance for a Particle One-dimensional Motion Of In a Fluid

FD Drag force m du  Fe  Fb  FD
Fb Buoyant force
dt
where Fe  ma

Fb  ma
 p
Fe External force
CD u 2Ap
m = mass of particle FD 
u = velocity of particle relative to the fluid
 2
, p= densities of the fluid & particle,
a= acceleration of the particle 
CD = drag coefficient (dimensionless)
Ap = projected area of the particle
du  a a  CDu Ap  a  p    CDu Ap
2 2

dt p 2m p 2m


 •Motion from gravitational force

• a=g

du  g p   C u 2 A

p  D p
dt 2m
• Motion in a centrifugal field
 a r 2

du  r 2  p    CDu Ap
2

dt p 2m
where
r = radius of path of particle
  = angular velocity, rad/s
u is directed outwardly along a radius
 TERMINAL VELOCITY (FREE SETTLING)

• maximum settling velocity (constant velocity) is called terminal/free

settling velocity, ut

  m
2g 
ut   p 
Ap pCD

m = mass of particle
 CD = drag coefficient

, p= densities of the fluid & particle, respectively

Dp = equivalent dia. of particle In fluid dynamics, the drag
g = acceleration of the particle coefficient (unit-less) to quantify
the drag or resistance of an object in a
Ap = projected area of the particle fluid environment, such as air or water
 DRAG COEFFICIENT FOR RIGID SPHERES

• As a function of Reynolds number

DRAG COEFFICIENT FOR RIGID SPHERES
DRAG COEFFICIENT
fluidized bed surface is composed of several zones
• Fluidized bed zone - A physical phenomenon
occur when stationary solid particulates, just
Free
attain transport inside the bed.. board

• Splash zone – region just above the bed

surface in which coarse particles fall back
down,
• Diffusion/ disengagement Zone– region
above the splash zone in which particles
disengage. This zone can be divided in 2 sub
zones
i. Dilute-phase transport zone – region above
the zone in which all particles are carried
upwards and concentration varies,
ii. Dense phase transport zone, particle flux
and suspension concentration remain
constant with height.
• Freeboard – region between the bed surface
and fluid outlet,
 Fluidised bed types
•STATIONARY OR BUBBLING FLUIDISED BED – fluid at low velocity is used to fluidize the
solids which are relatively stationary but fine particles may entrain,
•CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED BEDS (CFB), Fluids are at a sufficient velocity to suspend the
particle in the bed, due to a larger kinetic energy of the fluid,
•VIBRATORY FLUIDIZED BEDS- Similar to stationary beds, but mechanical vibrations excite
the particles for increased entrainment.
•TRANSPORT OR FLASH REACTOR (FR) - At velocities higher than CFB, particles approach the
velocity of the fluid,
•Annular fluidized bed (AFB). A large nozzle is introduces to achieve high velocity for rapid
mixing zone,
•MECHANICALLY FLUIDISED BED (MFB). A mechanical stirrer is used to mobilize particles
and achieve to have a well-mixed fluidised bed. It does not require fluidisation fluid.
 SUPERFICIAL VELOCITY In FLUIDIZATION
• The superficial fluid velocity at which
a particle leaves the fixed bed at
constant drop in pressure, known as
the minimum fluidization velocity Umb,

• Superficial velocity in multiphase

flows and flows in porous media, is a
artificial (hypothetical) flow velocity.
• Depends on the pressure drop within
the bed for the given phase or fluid in
a particular cross sectional area,
• Superficial velocity transforms
Packed bed to Fluidized bed.

i. Until onset of fluidization p increases, then becomes constant.

ii. “L” is constant until onset of fluidization, then begins to increase
 MINIMUM FLUIDIZATION VELOCITY
pressure drop across the bed equal to the weight of the bed per unit area

P  g 1   p   L










pressure drop given by Ergun Eq :

P  150V  1 

1.75
2


V
2
o 1
L
o  
g2s Dp2  3 gsDp  3 L

At the point of incipient/beginning fluidization : S


150V OM 

1
  

1.75V
2
OM 1
  
 
M 
  g
2s D2p M
3 sDp M 3  p 

V OM = minimum fluidization velocity (fluid vel. at which fluidization begins)


M = minimum bed porosity/void fraction



 Void Fraction at Min. Fluidization

• M depends on the shape of the particles.

• For spherical particles M is usually 0.4 – 0.45.
 Calculation of minimum fluidization velocity
A bed of ion-exchange beads 8 ft deep is to be backwashed with water to
remove dirt. The particle have a density of 1.24g/cm3 and an average
size of 1.1 mm. What is the minimum fluidization velocity using
water at 20oC. The beads are assumed to be spherical M =0.7 and s is
taken as 0.4.



150V

 1 M  1.75V 2OM 1
OM 
  g p  
 
2s D 2
p
M
3 sDp M 3


Disadvantages of Fluidized Particulate Separation
• Expensive method of solid separation because solids entrained in fluidizing fluid.
• Erosion of internals and abrasion of solids results variation of particle velocities.
• Back-mixing may reduce efficiency which lowers separation.
• Possibility of de-fluidization exists due to agglomeration ( collection) of solids,
• Scale-up can be difficult.
 Entrainment in Fluidized Particulate Separation

• The ejection of particles from the surface of a bed to remove it from

the bed is called Entrainment,
• Entrainment of particles in an upward-flowing stream is a complex
process,
• Rate of entrainment and size distribution of particles, depends on
particle size, density, fluid properties, stream velocity,
type of flow regime and vessel diameter,
• For coarse particles when terminal velocity is greater than the
superficial velocity, (UT > U)
• For fine particles, ( UT < U )
 Prob. 7.19: How would drop viscosity and interfacial tension be
expected to influence the terminal velocity of drops in an immiscible
liquid. ?
1. Influence of shear forces on terminal velocity.
A small drop of water or aqueous solution nearly spherical in shape, when falls in
an immiscible organic liquid, shear forces develops and influence the movement of
the immiscible drop. The shear force also utilized to re shape the drop. The
consumption of shear forces decrease the drag force and increase the terminal
velocity.
2. Influence of viscosity
If the viscosity of the aqueous is high as compared to immiscible organic liquid, the
rate of internal circulation is reduced and the terminal velocity becomes closer to
the rigid sphere.
3. The influence of interfacial tension.
The surface tension between the aqueous drop and immiscible organic fluid
decreases which change the shape of the drop because of departure from the
spherical shape of the drop and terminal velocity becomes constant.