Bronzino, Guidobaldo II della Rovere, 1531-32.

Oil on panel, 114 x 86 cm.

Palazzo Pitti.
Hans Holbein the Younger, Jean de
Dinteville and Georges de Selve (The
Ambassadors), 1533.
Oil on oak panel, 207 x 209.5 cm.
National Gallery (London).
Anthony van Dyck, Self-portrait, c. 1620-23.
Hermitage.
Anthony van Dyck, Lady Mary Villiers with
Charles Hamilton, Lord Arran, c. 1637.
Oil on canvas, 240 x 161.9 cm.
North Carolina Museum of Art.
Anthony Van Dyck, Thomas Killigrew
and William, Lord Crofts (?), 1638.
Oil on canvas, 132.9 x 144.1 cm.
Royal Collection.
William Scrots (attributed), Edward VI,
1546-47.
Oil on panel, 107.2 x 82 cm.
Royal Collection.
Robert Dighton, George “Beau” Brummell, 1805.
Colour lithograph.
Rembrandt, Belshazzar’s Feast, c. 1636-38.
Oil on canvas, 167.6 x 209.2 cm.
National Gallery, London.
Georges Seurat, A Sunday on
La Grande Jatte—1884, 1884-
86.
Oil on canvas, 207.5 x 308.1
cm.
Art Institute of Chicago.
Unknown artist, Elizabeth I (The
Armada Portrait), c. 1588.
Oil on panel, 105 x 133 cm.
Woburn Abbey.
George Elgar Hicks, Woman’s Mission:
Companion of Manhood, 1863.
Oil on canvas.
Tate, London.
Edgar Degas, Portraits at the Stock
Exchange, 1878-79.
Oil on canvas, 100 x 82 cm.
Musée d’Orsay.
John Michael Wright, Charles II, c. 1671-76.
Oil on canvas, 281.9 x 239.2 cm.
Royal Collection.
 Suit (Italy), c. 1770.
Waistcoat (France), c. 1770.
Silk, metallic thread, sequins.
Los Angeles County Museum of Art.
Edgar Degas, The Millinery Shop, 1879-
86.
Oil on canvas, 100 x 110.7 cm.
Art Institute of Chicago.
Robe à la Française (British), 1740s.
Silk, pigment, linen.
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
William Holman Hunt, The Awakening
Conscience, 1853.
Oil on canvas, 76.2 x 55.9 cm.
Tate.
François Boucher, Madame de Pompadour,
1756.
Oil on canvas, 201 x 157 cm.
Alte Pinakothek.
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, La Grande Odalisque, 1814.
Oil on canvas, 91 x 162 cm.
Louvre.
Shawl (Kashmir), c. 1780.
Pashmina.
V&A.
Elisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun, Marie
Antoinette in a Chemise Dress, 1783.
Oil on canvas, 89.8 x 72 cm.
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Pierre-Paul Prud'hon, The Empress Josephine,
1805.
Oil on canvas.
Musée du Louvre, Paris.
François Boucher, Jeanne-Antoinette Poisson,
Marquise de Pompadour, 1750.
Oil on canvas, 81.2 x 64.9 cm.
Harvard Art Museums/Fogg Museum.
 Gown (British), c. 1800.
Muslin (Bengal) embroidered with cotton.
V&A.
Fashion
• Changing styles of dress and appearance that are adopted by a group
of people at any given time and place
• Could even been individual, not group
• Focuses on an element of change
• This emphasis on change implicates how we think about who has and wears fashion
• Contributes to an art and aesthetic
• We might link the idea of fashion being a western thing because of:
• Capitalism & means of production
• Tailoring
Material Culture
• Approach: pay attention to the context of an object's production, circulation, and use
• The life of the object
• Things have different values at different points of time
• A chair might be used in home, sold in an auction, held in a museum to demonstrate historical
designs of chairs
• Emphasizes context of an object’s production, circulation and use
• Acknowledges that objects are both formative and reflective of a particular culture
• Objects are both formative and reflective of a particular culture
• It changes our interactions with it
• Vivienne Westwood likes to design things that will fall off
• The way that people have configured their materiality will change their interaction with the world
• This analysis look at them to discern a particular object in a particular time
• Classrooms around Queen's can demonstrate the change of attitudes towards teaching
• Material culture: any of the concrete expressions of a culture
• Includes toys, art, tools, architecture and landscape, adornment, furniture
Material Culture
• 3 Stages
• Description: what can be observed
• Deduction: what does the object do and how does it do that
• Speculation: the framing of questions and hypotheses that then need to be
tested against external evidence
Codpiece
• Codpiece: gained momentum in the 15th-16th century
• Doublets evolved shorter and shorter and therefore required a codpieces
to conceal genital areas
• Eventually became more elaborate - they were sometimes made to
stimulate a constant state of erection
• Because of the religious undertones, the emphasis was originally on the
testicles because they represented fertility and the seed of life
• Eventually, the emphasis moves away from the testicles to the penis on
more of a performance level representing male sexuality, reproductive
ability, desire, and by extension, military prowess (lol)
• Suggests the hope of fertility "passed down" to Edward
Portrait Historié
• A term coined in France in the late 18th century to describe portraits
featuring the depiction of known individuals in the guise of biblical,
mythological, or literary personages
• A synthesis of history painting and portraiture
• Rembrandt Belshazzar’s Feast
• historicised portrait
• A portrait that depicts the sitter in the guise of mythological, Biblical,
or literary figures
Swagger Portrait
• Swagger Portrait: portrait that emphasizes public display and social
aspiration - fantastical quality - drapery creates a different kind of
portrait here
• Exude confidence
• Untucked, messy look
Sumptuary Legislature
• Laws that regulate the type of clothing people in the public could wear according to their rank
• It also got into details: style, cut, materials, trims - all according to your position in society
• Needed to be updated regularly to keep up with fashion
• Were difficult to enforce
• Most of the people who were violating were typically nobility who were trying to dress above
their station - they would punish the tailor instead of the nobility
• Italy and England had rules where people were called to inform on their neighbours
• The intent was to help maintain social order
• Make money off the laws
• Made to help support the local economy
• You are purchasing domestic goods instead of imported
• You don't see people in portraits breaking the law because why would you memorialize yourself
breaking the sumptuary law
Sprezzautra
• Castiglione’s aim was to instruct noblemen on proper manners and
comportment, and part of that was cultivating an elegant style while
appearing natural and unrehearsed about it, whether in dress, dance
or speech. He called this “a certain nonchalance, so as to conceal
design and make whatever one does or says appear to be without
effort and almost without thought.”
• Castiglione’s concept of sprezzatura in dressing was taken to its
greatest extremes by the infamous Beau Brummell, who supposedly
spent hours in front of a mirror each day arranging his cravat to make
it look like it was done with no effort at all.
Periwig
• Periwig - from the French - perruque for wig
• The long, flowing hair that Louis XIV had in his early years became the ideal
for a wig. Unfortunately, the Sun King was prone to baldness and used wigs
to cover up the increasing number of bald spots. Consequently, the periwig
became all the rage amongst his male courtiers - Charles II of England was
another big fan of the periwig ensuring its popularity in England as well.
Thus, the periwig re-entered the fashionable circles in 1660 and already in
1665 it was considered an absolute necessary part of a gentleman's attire.
• It was rather unfortunate that the wigs had a tendency to emit an
unpleasant odour; that they were never washed but pomaded and
powdered did not help.
Les talons rouges
• In imitation of the French King XIV
• High heels were popular for both men and women
• For men, the style was invented in Persia where they were invented
for horseback riding
• Only the king or nobility were allowed to wear the red heels
• Monarchs like to create consistency - a static and unchanging ruler,
stability
Chopine
• Shoes for Women:
• Embroidery: silver-gilt would've appeared gold but tarnished with time
• Popular in Northern parts of Europe - velvet and embroidery shoe
• Chopine:
• Fashionable in Venice/Spain
• Wooden pegs would keep wearer above the wet floor
• Showed status - velvet and leather were expensive
• The height that was also a sign of status as they usually required an attendant to walk
around with to balance on, usually worn at leisure
Toilette
• a ritual (sometimes public) for transforming the face and body
through the application of cosmetics
• All but devout religious individuals will use makeup to accentuate
natural features
• Meant to look put on and made up
• Can be used to conceal age or defects but becoming more common
as time goes on to signify femininity
•
Mouche
• Mouche (from the French for fly or beauty patch): a small piece of
black silk taffeta or velvet or velvet that was affixed to the face
• Used to conceal imperfections in the skin – can use multiple at once,
had to be in the know with the styles of the time as to not add too
much and look foolish
• Men could use to cover up an unsightly scar
• Highlights the whiteness of the skin they are placed on (western
world)
• Patches can be cut in various shapes (i.e. heart, star, moon)
Macaroni
• French elites and aristocrats wore particularly lavish clothing and were often referred to
as “Macaronis,” as pictured in the caricature on the right. The lower class loathed their
open show of wealth when they themselves dressed in little more than rags.
• Origins in mascaraed culture – cross dressing very popular
• Linked to grand tour – men of educational backgrounds will go on a tour of various great
artwork
• Also gets knowledge of culinary matters – how these men got the name Macaroni
• Playfulness and foolishness associated
• Yankee doodle song w/ Macaroni – this is referencing these guys
• Also people that want to use their self-fashion for an angle of prominence in high society
(not just rich people)
• Macaroni fashions came from Italy and France
• Sleeves are more fitted, coat is shorter, less reserved
• More ornamented
Wool
• Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and other animals,
• Wool from
• sheep, goats,
• camel, rabbits,
• alpaca
• ow luster, strong, doesn’t wrinkle,
• elastic, high absorbency, poor heat
• conduction, will felt, can be
• damaged by insects but not mild
Cotton
• Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective
case, around the seeds of the cotton plants
• high luster, doesn’t wrinkle easily,
• takes dye well, smooth, mildew
• resistant,
Silk
• Uniquely glossy, origin in China
• Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into
textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is
produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons
• Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into
textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is
produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons
Muslin
• lightweight cotton cloth in a plain weave
• Through the East Indian Company, have colonized many Indian areas
• They capitalize on raw cotton, and fabric that's already been woven like
muslin
• There starts to see a coherence between women in home spaces as the
muslin starts to be used in home décor
• This fabric is also linked towards femininity in this time period
• The empire line dress becomes very popular because of this resurgence of
classical ideals
• The clinging qualities of classical style are evident through the long stretch
of drapery, the transparent quality of the muslin --> helps to create the
visibility of the body through the dress.
Dandy
• Dandy: one who cultivates the self as a work of art, associated with
fastidiously dressed gentlemen of the early nineteenth century
• Dandy cultivates themselves as a work of art
• Someone who represents the hybrid between macaroni and the
conventional sober styling in men's dress of the 18th century
• Combines fascination with fashion with more restrained look of British
tailoring
• Combined with notion of social climbing
• Usually dressed higher than the social hierarchy than you were born with
• Dandy looked at the details:
• How finely tailored was your clothing, what's the detail on your buttons
• Men's dress is finer detail in details than overt decoration
Tyrian purple
• Discovered by Cretians, Venetians, named after Tyre, produced in coastal cities on the Mediterranean
• Purple come from snails - murcidae
• They secrete a liquid/mucus - in the natural state is a defense mechanism which in the sunlight, turned purple
• Had to get it out of the snail before it was exposed to sun
• Harvest large quantities of snail, bash them, let them sit for a few days (ferment them for 10 days)
• Dyemats were located on the outskirts of cities
• In Mexico, similar snail
• They found a way to milk the snails by scaring them
• It would've taken 12000 snails to produce around 1 gram of dye
• Was considered as valuable as gold and silver
• Brilliant purple
• Colourfast: Didn't fade in the sunlight
• Could get a range of colour
• Rarity - because not only was it difficult to do, but the secret of how to dye it was a secret
• They hunted the snails to endangerment/extinction
• The recipe has been lost, experimentation has tried to recreate it
• This created the fixiation on purple
Indigo
• One of the oldest and natural dyes in the world, one of the longest consistently in use
• Comes from a number of plants
• Woad - cabbage family
• Wild indigo
• You can to soak and ferment the plants in water or urine for several days
• This liquid will be strained and the silt comes out and this is compounded into blocks and chips and grinded into powder
• You have to mix it with ? And then add water to use it as a dye
• When the cloth is dipped in the dye, it doesn't immediately come out as blue
• The reaction to oxygen in the air gives it the blue colour
• Indigo is water-intensive
• The woad industry is already heavily in place
• Indigo was characterized as the devil's dye
• The Mali already had a knowledge of Indigo processing (Tuareg)
• When these people were forcibly transferred to the US, they would've already had a knowledge of indigo dyeing
Cochineal
• Became more popular in the 16th century
• Cochineal is an insect that feeds on the leaves of the cactus
• They can be harvested, dried, and ground down
• When combined with water, they produce a brilliant red dye
• Superior to madder and kermes
• Takes 70,000 bugs to produce a pound of raw dye substance
• Equivalent to 10 or 12 pounds of Kermes
• Candy, lipstick, strawberry and raspberry yogurt
• Carmine, carminic acid, E120
Mauvine
• Sir Willian Henry Perkin
• Working at the Royal College of Chemmistry
• 1856
• An accident - he was experimenting with cool tar products trying to
find a substitute for quinine, an anti-malarial medicine
• He added a red to the mauvine in 1879
• Public demand increase when Queen Victoria and Empress Eugénie,
wife of Napoleon III were seen in the colour.
Arsenic green
• Green is difficult to produce as a natural dye
• Up until the 19th century, green was created by using yellow agents
(tumeric) and indigo
• First synthesized in 1775 and perfected in 19th century
• Arsenic was present in wallpaper, dresses, clothing, fake flowers,
children's toys, candy
• Very nasty skin conditions if you worked in the production of arsenic
green items
Corset
• Women's bodies were weaker than men and therefore need the extra
support
• Metal eyelets are used at the back - you can pull the fabric apart if
you don't have them
• This allows women to lace these more tightly than before
• Exaggerates the curves and bust and gives a very small waist line
• Contained the body
• If you weren't laced up tightly, you were probably not a reputable
individual
• A sign of moral laxity
Crinoline
• A crinoline /krɪn.əl.ɪn/ is a stiff or structured petticoat designed to
hold out a woman's skirt, popular at various times since the mid-19th
century. Originally, crinoline described a stiff fabric made
of horsehair ("crin") and cotton or linen which was used to make
underskirts and as a dress lining.
• 1856 "The Favourite of the Empress"
• The type of steel used comes out of innovation and steel - spring steel
• Fire-related deaths came with crinoline
• Lightweight, very durable way to be fashionable during that time
Democratisation
• the action of making something accessible to everyone (through mass
production)
• Because of the popular demand of the Indian shawls, Europe found a
way to reproduce them and make them a highly available commodity
• European is made with wool and silk, not Pashmina
• Recreated in Paisley --> paisley print
• Makes fashion more widely available to consumers
Conspicuous consumption
• The consumption of goods in order to make personal status and
wealth visible
• Becomes possible in the 19th century because of the availability of goods to a
more variety of people
Couturier
• Couturier: Fashion designer who creates and fits items to individual
clients
• Charles Frederick Worth
• Often identified as the original couturier
• The Empress Eugenie dress
Rococo
• The Rococo era was defined by seemingly contrasting aspects:
extravagance and a quest for simplicity, light colors and heavy
materials, aristocrats and the bourgeoisie. This culmination produced
a very diverse era in fashion like none ever before. Although this
movement was largely ended with the French Revolution, its ideas
and main aspects strongly affected future fashions for decades.
Orientalism
• European attitudes towards the east was of the hidden, delectable
woman who was only available to her master
• Sexuality and sexual activities was perceved of the east