INTRODUCTION:DOING PHILOSOPHY

One of the key elements in many educational reforms is

DIVERSITY, DIFFERENCE and CHOICE or other proposals that establish
separate curricular routes for different groups or individuals.
DIVERSITY , is the difference that makes each person unique,
(e.g. BIOLOGY , ETHNICITY, and CULTURE, FAMILY LIFE , BELIEFS ,
GEOGRAPHY , EXPERIENCES and RELIGION ).
PHILOS – LOVE
SOPHIA – WISDOM
“LOVE OF WISDOM”
Wisdom is the goal of Philosophy , science that by natural light of
reason studies the first causes or highest principles of all things.
PHILOSOPHY IS SCIENCE, -investigation is systematic, follows certain
steps or it employs certain procedures, organized body of knowledge
just like any other sciences .
PHILOSOPHY as NATURAL LIGHT of REASON
Philosophy investigates things , not by using any laboratory
instrument or investigative tools, neither on the basis of
supernatural revelation, otherwise it becomes theology; instead
the Philosopher uses his natural capacity to think or simply, human
reason alone or the so-called unaided reason .
PHILOSOPHY as STUDY of ALL THINGS
This sets the distinction between Philosophy from other
sciences. All other sciences concern themselves with a particular
object of investigation.
The reason is that Philosophy is not ONE DIMENSIONAL or PARTIAL
, A philosopher does not limit himself to a particular object or
inquiry.-------MULTIDIMENSIONAL or HOLISTIC.
FIRST CAUSE or HIGHEST PRINCIPLE. A principle is that from which
something proceeds in any manner whatsoever.
PRINCIPLE OF IDENTITY
It states that each thing is identical with itself. By this it is meant
that each thing (be it a universal or a particular) is composed of its
own unique set of characteristic qualities or features, which the
ancient Greeks called its essence. WHAT IS IS ; WHATEVER IS NOT IS
NOT. EVERYTHING IS ITS OWN BEING.
PRINCIPLE OF NON CONTRADICTION, It states that contradictory
statements cannot both be true in the same sense at the same time,
e.g. the two propositions "A is B" and "A is not B" are mutually
exclusive.
PRINCIPLE OF NON –CONTRADICTION , It is impossible for
a thing to be and not to be at the same time and at the
same respect.
PRINCIPLE OF EXCLUDED MIDDLE, a thing is neither is or is
not; everything must e either be or not be; between being
and not being, there is no middle ground, It states that for
any proposition, either that proposition is true, or its
negation is true.(principium tertii exclusi. Another Latin
designation for this law is tertium non datur: "no third
(possibility) is given.)
PRINCIPLE OF SUFFICIENT REASON , nothing exist without
a sufficient reason for its being and existence. states that
everything must have a reason or a cause.
RECOGNIZE HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT EMANATED FROM
DELIBERATE REFLECTION
After examining the definition of Philosophy, it
distinguishes the branches from where recognition of
various human activities emanated from deliberate
reflections and dialogues. Many of the most Vital issues of
Philosophy are still disputed and have unsettled questions
today. Nevertheless one of the greatest needs of anyone
seeking “wisdom” is a genuine sympathy and an
understanding of all the most diverse points of
view(holistic perspective). A narrow provincialism of
mind, limited to the ideas and outlook of a single party or
a single age (partial perspective) is wholly incompatible
with the real philosophical attitude.
WHY BECOME A PHILOSOPHER? ON ATTAINING A
COMPREHENSIVE OUTLOOK IN LIFE
One of the key elements in many educational reforms is
diversity, difference and choice or other proposals that
establish separate curricular routes for different groups or
individual . Diversity is the difference that makes each
person unique and culture, family life , beliefs geography
experiences and religion.
Educational challenge in the 21st century entails
appropriate acceptance of cultural and racial multiplicity.
One does not engage in harassment of any form.
EXPANDING OUR PHILOSOPHICAL FRAMES: WESTERN and
NON WESTERN TRADITION, many philosophers hold that
there are three great original centers of philosophy in the
world GREEK(WEST) , INDIAN and CHINESE, All three arose
as critical reflections on their own cultural traditions.
Historically Speaking, Asian classics of the Indians and the
Chinese predate the oldest of Western Classics. Indian and
Chinese Philosophers of note also lived earlier than their
Greek counterparts, during the first centuries , there was
more philosophical activity in the east than in the west.
Before the Greek period, there was hardly an activity in
the west. GREEK BEFORE THALES did not have philosophy.
From the time of Greek triumvirate (SOCRATES , PLATO,
ARISTOTLE ), There was a reversal. Western Thinkers
started to indulge in feverish philosophical speculation,
whereas the Asian thinkers began diminishing
Philosophical activity . (NOW FROM WESTERN THINKERS).
Culture of the East is very different from that the WEST
(PRIMARILY EUROPE , NORTH AMERICA) but that does not
mean each culture centers around the globe that are very
different from our own. Each society or culture has its
own ideas of itself , a definition of what is important in
life, and its notion of what the world is like in general
terms; thus each society or culture can be said to have its
own PHILOSOPHY.
THE WEST HAS UT TO THEORIZE AND SPECULATE; NO
APPLICATION TO LIFE IS NECESSARY, SUCH ARE THE
PLATONIC , HEGELIAN, KANTIAN, FICHTEAN theories to
which the western philosophers render lip service; their
application to practice is still being contested y other
western philosophers.
THE CONCEPT OF ALL-AT-ONCE-NESS WHICH IS THE
HALLMARK OF THE MIND OF ASIA IS ANNOYING TO THE
WESTERN MIND WHICH CANNOT SHAKE OFF ITS
STRUCTURAL MODE OF THINKING IN TERMS OF
BEGINNING AND END, OF BEFORE AND AFTER, OF THEN
AND NOW AND LATER. THIS IS NO DOUBT APPLICABLE TO
INDIVIDUAL THINGS AND EVENTS WHICH THE ASIAN
MIND DOES NOT REJECT, BUT WHEN THE LINE OF
REASONING AND UNDERSTANDING IS RAISED FROM THE
FRAGMENTARY TO THE TOTAL, FROM THE PEACEMEAL TO
THE WHOLE , FROM THE PART TO THAT ALL OF THE
WORLD OF THINGS, THE ASIAN MINDS BALKS AT THE
ILLOGIC OF APPLYING THE SAME PRINCIPLES PERTAINING
ONLY TO THE FRAGMENTS TO THAT OF THE WHOLE.
KNOWER AND THE KNOWN : EAST and WEST
DISTINCTION

KNOWER
KNOWER KNOWN
KNOWN

Easter Version Western Version

For The Eastern Version, life becomes illusory if we
attached to the world and in which we are ensnared is not
what is. In terms of knowledge, our everyday experience
of the world present us with dualistic distinction---me/you
or subject/object. However, this is artificial; our egos fool
us into seeing separation. The distinction between knower
and known is essentially artificial for the eastern version.
If LOGIC , is no longer able to solve a life problem, ASIAN
MIND RESORTS TO INTUITION. From the very fact that it
thinks in a cyclic all-at-once-ness, it must resort to MEANS
OTHER THAN THE USUAL MENTAL PROCESSES APPLICABLE
TO THE PIECEMEAL AND FRAGMENTARY. ONE SHOULD
NOT THEREFORE BE SURPRISED AT ITS PROPENSITY TO
MYSTICISM, AT ITS USE OF SUPER – CONSCIOUSNESS, OR
OF THE EXISTENCE OF A THIRD EYE OR A SIXTH SENSE,
WHEN THE SITUATION DEMANDS, IT REVERSES THE
LOGICAL PATTERNS.
FILIPINO THINKING:FROM LOCAL TO GLOBAL
It may sound presumptuous to speak of FILIPINO
THOUGHT , for the reason that the Philippines could not
very well speak of a tradition such as that of China , India ,
or Greco-Roman. Yet for the Filipino, there has to be
FILIPINO THOUGHT or none at all. Like any other people,
the Filipino must eventually take consciousness of his own
particular life and his world, his society and his gods in the
light of truth and thereby realized his proper being,
however, the pioneering attempts to formulate a Filipino
Philosophy share the fate of most pioneering works
The lack of refined tools and the lack of predecessors
upon whom to stand; Nevertheless, Filipinos do have their
own Philosophy.
1. LOOB : HOLISTIC and INTERIOR DIMENSION
KAGANDAHANG-LOOB ; KABUTIHANG LOOB, KALOOBAN,
Terms that shows sharing of one’s self to others ,
pakikisama
- The Filipinos as individual looks at himself as
holistic from the interior dimension under the principle of
harmony. THE FILIPINOS LOOKS AT HIMSELF , as a self as a
total whole ---- AS A PERSON , CONSCIOUS OF HIS
FREEDOM , PROUD OF HIS HUMAN DIGNITY.
FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY OF TIME
“GULONG NG PALAD”
PAKIKISAMA “ CLOSE TO JAPANESE AND CHINESE
PHILOSOPHY OF LIVING HARMONY WITH NATURE
INDIA’S “LAW OF KARMA”
CHINA’S YIN AND YANG-
Often Filipino time is mistakenly interpreted as always
delayed, in the committed time of arrival, this notion can
be misleading since the Filipino farmers are early risers to
go to their field and waste no time for work. The concept
of SIESTA TIME (POWER NAPS) is also important for
Filipino Culture that must not be necessarily considered
negative.
BAHALA NA, The pre-Spanish Filipino people believed in a
Supreme Being, BATULA OR BATHALA, However in this
regard, the originality of Filipino thought will probably be
precisely in his personalistic view of the universe, The
Filipino seems to signify that ultimately in life, we have to
reckon not only with nature and human nature but also
with cosmic presences or spirits
Seen to be the ultimate origin to the problem of evil .
BATHALA , NOT AN IMPERSONAL ENTITY BUT RATHER A
PERSONAL BEING THAT KEEPS BALANCE IN THE UNIVERSE,
For Filipinos, Bathala is endowed with personality, evolved
into the CHRISTIAN GOD.
BAHALA NA PHILOSOPHY OF THE FILIPINOS ACCEPTS IT AS
PART OF LIFE , Literally leaving everything to GOD, one of
the most outstanding Filipino traits, FATALISM

FILIPINO THOUGHT AND VALUES: POSITIVE and NEGATIVE

ASPECTS.
UTANG NA LOOB (INDEBTEDNESS TO PATRONS)
BAYANIHAN– POSITIVE TRAITS
PHILOSOPHY: TRANSCENDING and AIMING FOR A LIFE OF
ABUNDANCE, Abundance comes from the Latin word
“abundare” , meaning TO OVERFLOW NON STOP,
ABUNDANCE, is outflowing than incoming. It is not about
amassing material things or people but our relationship
with others, ourselves, and with nature.
ABUNDANCE IS NOT WHAT WE GATHER UT WHAT WE
SCATTER, often always equated with materialism, but it is
when we raise our empty hands and surrender. ONLY IF
WE HAVE EMPTY HANDS CAN WE RECEIVE FULL
BLESSINGS.
PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION, In everyday language, is
used to refer to being engaged in thought, day dreaming,
or recollecting/remembering an events in our mind.
These definition needs clarification
REFLECTION , can never be separated from life. The
concern of reflection is everyday life, in which it is
embedded, e.g. LOOSING CELLPHONE OR HOUSE KEYS,
disruption comes from the fact that the cellphone and
the house key were considered as valuable, recalling and
disrupting of life of what had happened, In this case
REFLECTION is a personal act that is linked to the
personal experience , no one could reflect it for me.
REFLECTION is not all about remembering external
objects. Most of the time, it involves a memory of a
friend , a conversation
With a teacher, or bonding with family members, the
question “WHAT AM I LIVING FOR?” “WHAT DO I LIVE
BY”, part of essentially being human, is the capacity not
only to live with hardly any self awareness but to
experience life in a reflective way. ONLY THE HUMAN
PERSON COULD ASK ABOUT HIS EXISTENCE, “ MADALING
MAGING TAO NGUNIT MAHIRAP MAGPAKATAO”.
REFLECTION , begins when man encounters a break from
our everyday life. It is a discontinuity, or a jarring
disturbance in the experience, In this sense experience,
turns into REFLECTION, THAT EXPERIENCE IS NOT A
PASSIVE ACCEPTANCE OF IMPRESSION, EXPERIENCE AND
REFLECTION IMPLICATE EACH OTHER, THE RELATIONSHIP
IS CRUCIAL.
PRIMARY and SECONDARY REFLECTION, reflection raises
experience to the level of rationality. EXPERIENCE
remains to be a source of material for philosophical
reflection.
PRIMARY REFLECTION, breaks the unity of experience
and is the foundation of scientific inquiry, EDMUND
HUSSERL (NATURAL ATTITUDE ) , scientific attitude
predominant-belief that only science is authoritative and
all other points are invalid, REFERS , to the instrument of
scientific knowledge, it understands its object of
abstraction, which implies a breaking into constituent
parts. Interested with the definition and with technical
and methodological solutions to the problems. ANSWER
and JUDGEMENT ARE OBJECTIVE-which was derive from
the LATIN “OBIECTUM”– To throw against .
SECONDARY REFLECTION , On the other hand, is
SYNTHETIC, It unifies rather than divides, it recuperates
the unity of original experience. PHENOMENOLOGIST
(SECONDARY REFLECTION) is the instrument of
Philosophical reflection. GABRIEL MARCEL(ROUGHLY,
THAT WHERE PRIMARY REFLECTION TENDS TO DISSOLVE
UNITY OF EXPERIENCE WHICH IS FIRST PUT BEFORE IT, ,
THE FUNCTION OF SECONDARY REFLECTION IS
ESSENTIALLY RECUPERATIVE, IT RECONQUERS THAT
UNITY), IT DOES THIS BY HIGHLIGHTING THE RECIPROCAL
CONNECTION BETWEEN THE OBJECT AND THE
SUBJECT(THIS TIME FROM THE LATIN “SUBIECTUM” ,
LITERALLY TO THROW BENEATH.
REFLECTION, involves consciousness and consciousness is
always a “CONSCIOUSNESS OF” something, different
object necessitate different kinds of reflection. PRIMARY
REFLECTION, is interested with that which is outside of
me or before me; it dissects the experience into parts, it
dissolves the unity of the experience by emphasizing the
parts, rather than approaching it as a whole. SECONDARY
REFLECTION , is concerned with that which is in me,
which I am , or with those area where the distinctions,
“IN ME” and “BEFORE ME” , Tend to break down; it
attempts to recuperates the unity of the original
experience. This is the attempt to see the parts in
relation to the whole ---- to interpret the parts with the
whole in sight Philosophical reflection is interested with
secondary reflection, which
Is not contrary to primary reflection; it just refuses to
accept primary reflection as final and definite.
SECONDARY REFLECTION provides an important aspect in
accessing ourselves. It becomes clear in the question of
identity, WHO AM I? ------ PRIMORDIAL QUESTION ON
WHICH ALL OTHER QUESTION IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF
THE HUMAN PERSON HINGES. SECONDARY REFLECTION ,
begins with what may be a feeling of silliness, also
allows human consider apart from biographic data.
“THERE WAS AN OLD MAN WHO LIVED BY HIMSELF. HE
FELT TIRED SO HE WENT INTO THE BATHROOM, WENT TO
THE TOILET, AND THEN TURNED THE LIGHT OFF BEFORE
GOING TO BED. THE NEXT MORNING THERE WAS A NEWS
FLASH ON THE RADIO THAT A BOAT CRASHED. THE MAN
OPENED THE WINDOW AND JUMPED OUT? WHY? “
INTRODUCTION:METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
The meaning and process of doing philosophy,
emphasizing the importance of holism, as well as
learning how to construct philosophical essays, were
introduced. IN SEARCH FOR WISDOM, LEARNER MUST
EVALUATE ARGUMENTS AND WAYS OF EXPRESSING
ONE’S BELIEFS , EMOTIONS AND OPINIONS.
PHILOSOPHIZING IS TO THINK OR EXPRESS ONESELF IN A
PHILOSOPHICAL MANNER, It considers or discuss a
matter from a philosophical standpoint.
PHENOMENOLOGY , TRUTH is based on the person’s
consciousness; while in EXTENTIALISM, TRUTH is based in
exercising choices and personal freedom. In post-
modernism , it is accepted that truth is not absolute, and
in logic, truth is based on REASONING and CRITICAL
THINKING.
PHENOMENOLOGY (CONSCIOUSNESS) EDMUND
HUSSERL, founded phenomenology, which is essentially a
philosophical method, focuses on careful inspection and
description of phenomena or appearances, defined as
ANY OBJECT OF CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCE, THAT IS
THAT WHICH WE ARE CONSCIOUS. LOGICAL
INVESTIGATION (EDMUND HUSSERL) --- PSYCHOLOGISM;
THE THESIS THAT THE TRUTH IS DEPENDENT ON THE
PECULARITIES OF THE HUMAN MIND, AND THAT
PHILOSOPHY IS REDUCIBLE TO PSYCHOLOGY-----In other
words, it was an argument against the very thesis he
himself argued. -----METHOD WAS PHENOMENOLOGY.
PHENOMENON- APPEARANCE-use by a German
philosopher by the name of IMMANUEL KANT ,
describing the world of experience. EDMUND HUSSERL–
Intends a similar meaning except for the crucial fact that
for him, it does not imply a contrast between the
appearance and some underlying reality between the
phenomenon and nounmenon or thing-in-itself,
That according to Edmund Husserl is where the trouble
starts, when one supposes that one experiences is not or
might not be the truth. PHENOMENOLOGY is the
scientific study of the essential structure of
consciousness, by describing it according to Edmund
Husserl is that man could find certainty, which
philosophy had always sought. EDMUND HUSSERL’S
PHENOMENOLOGY IS THE THESIS THAT CONSCIOUSNESS
IS INTENTIONAL IS DIRECTED AT SOME OBJECT OR
ANOTHER, POSSIBLY A MATERIAL OBJECT OR AN IDEAL
OBJECT.
E.g. dreams and what is in the telenovelas.
The inspection and description, are supposed to be
effected without any presupposition, including any as to
whether such object of consciousness are REAL or
Corresponds to something EXTERNAL , or to what their
causes or consequences may be, This method uncovers
the essential structures of experience and objects. E.g.
MATHEMATICS and LOGIC .PERCEPTION AND EXPERIENCE
AND EXPERIENCENOF THE SOCIAL WORLD; EXPERIENCE
OF MAN’S BODY; MORAL AESTHETIC AND RELIGIOUS
EXPERIENCES. The phenomenological standpoint is
achieved through a series of phenomenological
REDUCTIONS that eliminate certain aspects of our
experiences from consideration.
What interest the Phenomenologist, are the contents of
consciousness, not on things of the natural world as such.
In IDEAS, EDMUND HUSSERL distinguishes between the
natural world and the Phenomenological standpoint.
The former is our ordinary everyday viewpoint and the
ordinary stance of the natural sciences describing things
and state affairs. The latter is the special viewpoint
achieved by the phenomenologist, as he or she focuses
not on things but our consciousness of things.
EXISTENTIALISM : FREEDOM
One’s search for truth might be based on one’s
attitude or outlook. Take for instance, EXISTENTIALISM,
unlike Phenomenology , existentialism is not primarily a
Philosophical Method. Neither is it exactly a set of
Doctrines but more of an outlook or attitude supported
by diverse doctrines centered on certain common
themes, includes;
1. The Human Condition or the relation of the
individual to the world.
2. The Human Response to that Condition;
3. Being especially the difference between the being
of a person(EXISTENCE) and the being of other
kinds of things;
4. Human Freedom;
5. The significance(and unavoidability) of Choice and
decision in the absence of Certainty and;
 6. The Correctness and subjectivity of life as lived,
against abstraction and false objectifications.
EXISTENTIALIST share a concern for the individual and
personal responsibility and often thought to be anti
religious; nevertheless, there has been a strong current
of Christian Existentialism, beginning with the 19th
century Danish Philosopher ZORENN KIERKEGAARD----
the first EXISTENTIALIST , AND INSISTED THAT THE
AUTHENTIC SELF WAS THE PERSONALLY CHOSEN as
opposed to public or “herd” identity.
EXISTENTIALISM’S relationship to PHENOMENOLOGY is a
matter of some controversy. Some Philosophers JEAN
PAUL SARTRE------have employed phenomenological
methods to arrive at or support their specific variation
 on existentialism themes. Search for truth by means of
critical thinking is rational choice. EXISTENTIALISM, with
JEAN-PAUL SARTRE(FRENCH PHILOSOPHER), Emphasizes
the importance of free individual choice, regardless of
the power of other people to influence and coerce our
desires , beliefs , and decisions. EDMUND SARTRE argued
that consciousness(being for itself) is such that it is
always free to choose(though free not to choose) and
free to negate(or reject) the given features of the world.
ONE is never free of one’s situation and try to change it .
TO BE HUMAN , TO BE CONSCIOUS, IS TO BE FREE TO
IMAGINE , TO CHOOSE, and RESPONSIBLE FOR ONE’S
LIFE. One may be shy or assertive , but such behavior is
always a choice and one can always resolve to change
 e.g. One could be an American , or one could be an
Asian , but it is an open question how one could make of
oneself (BE AN ADVANTAGE OR BE A DISADVANTAGE) ,
become challenges to be overcome or excuses doing
nothing. SARTRE’S PHILOSOPHY would have a particular
poignance in the midst of the horrors of war and
occupation. The positive notion of authenticity (Good
faith) remained a problem for Sartre, however and one of
the continuing criticism of existentialism is the obscurity
and the seeming elusiveness of the ideal of authenticity.
The Notion of authenticity is not new. Socrates already
concerned with himself with authenticity of the self----
genuineness of the thoughts and action but virtue being
true to oneself.
 Socrates already concerned himself with the authenticity
of self----- the genuiness of his thoughts and actions, THE
GOOD OF HIS SOUL , He sought not mere opinions but
knowledge, self-knowledge in particular, and prescribed
not just right action but virtue, being TRUE TO ONESELF.
ST. AUGUSTINE, was concerned with the spiritual nature
of the TRUE SELF as opposed to the authentic demands of
desire and the body. JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU, was
adamant about the essential goodness of the NATURAL
SELF in contrast to the corruption imposed by society.
EXTENTIALISM , has been on the wan since 1960, it has
enjoyed exceptional prominence, even popularity, for a
philosophical movement, in part because of its literary
expressions by writers.
 POST MODERNISM: ON CULTURES
Has come into vogue as the name for a rather diffuse
family of ideas and trends that in significant respects,
rejects, challenges, or aims to supersede MODERNITY;
convictions , aspiration and pretentions of modern
western thought and culture since the enlightenment.
POSTMODERNISM , is not Philosophy. It is best a holding
pattern, perhaps a cry of despair. It rightly talks about
world philosophy. THE PHILOSOPHY OF MANY CULTURES,
BUT SUCH TALK IS NOT A PHILOSOPHY EITHER. For
instance, reality cannot be known or described objectively
by postmodernist. Postmodernist believe that humanity
should come at truth beyond the rational to the non-
rational elements of human nature including the
SPIRITUAL. Postmodernist consider that to arrive at truth,
humanity should realized the limits of reason and
objectivism
 Beyond Exalting individual analysis of truth,
postmodernist adhere to a relational , holistic approach.
Moreover, post modernist value our existence in the
world and in relation to it.
ANALYTIC TRADITION
“CAN LANGUAGE OBJECTIVELY DESCRIBE THE TRUTH?”
For the philosophers of this tradition, language
cannot objectively describe truth. For LUDWIG
WITTGENSTEIN--- an analytic Philosopher, LANGUAGE is
socially conditioned. THE WORLD SOLELY IN TERMS OF
THE LANGUAGE------LINGUISTICS, SOCIAL CONSTRUCTS,
TRUTH AS WE PERCEIVE, IT IS SELF SOCIALLY
CONSTRUCTED
 ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY, is the conviction that to some
significant degree, philosophical problems , puzzles , and
errors are rooted in language and can be solved or
avoided by a sound understanding of language and careful
attention to its workings. ANALYSIS, refers to a method ;
owing great deal to the pioneers.
LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING, Logic is centered in the
analysis and construction of arguments, LOGIC and
CRITICAL THINKING serve as paths to freedom from half-
truths and deceptions. CRITICAL THINKING is
distinguishing facts and opinions or personal feelings. In
making rational choices, FIRST SUSPENDSNBELIEF and
JUDGEMENTS until all facts have been gathered and
considered.
 Though facts are important, CRITICAL THINKING also
takes into consideration cultural systems, values and
beliefs. Critical Thinking help us uncover bias and
prejudice and open to new ideas not necessarily in
agreement with the previous thought.
TWO TYPES OF REASONING,
1. INDUCTIVE REASONING, is based from observation in
order to make generalizations-----THIS REASONING IS
OFTEN APPLIED IN PREDICTION, FORCASTING OR
BEHAVIOR.
2. DEDUCTIVE REASONING, draws conclusion from
usually one broad judgment or definition and one
more specific assertion, often an inference.
 Take for instance;
All Philosophers are wise . (MAJOR PREMISE)
CONFUCIUS IS A PHILOSOPHER. (MINOR PREMISE)
THEREFORE CONFUCIUS IS WISE. (CONCLUSION).
VALIDITY and SOUNDNESS OF AN ARGUMENT
Based on the example given(SYLLOGISM), IF TWO
PREMISE ARE CONSTRUCTED LOGICALLY, THEN THE
CONCLUSION MUST FOLLOW LOGICALLY, THE DEDUCTIVE
ARGUMENT IS VALID, This does not mean that the
conclusion is true or false. VALIDITY comes from a logical
conclusion based on logically constructed premises.
 STRENGTH OF AN ARGUMENT,
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT, cannot prove if the premise
are true which will also determine the truth of the
conclusion, it proves only probable support to the
conclusion, further inductive argument that succeeds in
providing such probable support is a strong argument.
While an inductive argument that fails to provide such
support is weak, a strong argument with true premises is
said to be cogent.
For example:
Jay: Do you think Congressman Gerry will be re-
elected?
Yna: I doubt it. His district has become more
conservative in recent years. Also, 63% of the registered
voters in his district are in the opposition.
The said argument is both a statistical argument and a
predictive argument, which are two common patterns of
inductive reasoning. Also, the conclusion does not follow
necessarily from the premises.
FALLACIES
A defect in an argument other than its having false
premises
To detect fallacies, it is required to examine the
argument's content.
Usually comitted errors in reasoning thus, coming up
with false conclusions and worse distorting the truth
 FALLACIES, Are a defect in an argument other than its
having false premises. To detect fallacies, it is required to
examine the argument’s content.
A. APPEAL TO PITTY ( ARGUMENTUM AD
MISERICORDIAM) , A
Specific kind of appeal to emotion in which someone
tries to win support for an argument or idea by exploiting
his or her opponents feelings of pity or guilt.
APPEAL TO IGNORANCE
(Argumentum Ad Ignoratiam)
Whatever has not been proven false must be true, and
vice versa.
E.g. There must be intelligence in other planets. But No
one has proven that there isn’t.
E.g. Researchers have not yet conclusively proven that
there is no Loch Ness Monster at the bottom of the sea,
therefore we should expect to see the monster anytime.
EQUIVOCATION
This is a logical chain of reasoning of a term or a word
several times, but giving the particular word a different
meaning each time.
Example: Human have hands; the clock have hands. He
is drinking from the pitcher of water; he is a baseball
pitcher.
All Trees have barks.
Dog Barks.
Therefore Dog is a tree.
COMPOSITION
This infers that something true of the whole from the fact
that it is true or some part of the whole. The reverse of
this fallacy is division.

DIVISION
One reasons logically that something true of a thing must
also be true of all or some of its parts.
AGAINST THE PERSON
(Argumentum Ad Hominem)

This fallacy attempts to link the validity of a premise to a

characteristic or belief of a person advocating the
premise. However, in some instances, questions of
personal conduct, character, motives, etc., are legitimate
if relevant to the issue.
-An attempt to refute another’s argument by attacking
the arguer’s circumstances , situation or motives.
 APPEAL TO FORCE
(Argumentum Ad Baculum)

An argument where force, coercion, or threat of force, is

given as a justification for a conclusion.
APPEAL TO THE PEOPLE
(Argumentum Ad Populum)
An argument that appeals or exploits people's vanities,
desire for esteem, and anchoring on popularity.
E.g. Appeal to populace
Joining the band wagon
FALSE CAUSE
(Post Hoc)
Since that event followed this one, that event must have
been caused by this one. This fallacy is also reffered to as
coincidental correlation, or correlation not causation.
 HASTY GENERALIZATION
One commits errors if one reaches an inductive
generalizations based on insufficient evidence. The fallacy
is commonly based on a broad conclusion upon the
statistics of a survey of a small group that fails to
sufficiently represent the whole population.

BEGGING THE QUESTION

(Petitio Principii)
This is a type of fallacy in which the proposition to be
proven is assumed implicity or explicity in the premise.
 ANALYZE SITUATIONS THAT SHOW THE DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN OPINION AQND TRUTH
Applying Logic and Fallacies in determining Truth and
Opinion:
At the beginning of the TRACTATUS, LUDWIG
WITTGENSTEIN speaks of the picture that we can form of
reality , and in which, by way of a model , represents the
existence and non-existence of state affairs. TRACTATUS,
identifies the relationship between language and reality
and to define the limits of science. It is recognized as a
significant Philosophical work of the 21st Century. It is in
the possibility of Agreeing or Disagreeing with reality,
thus being true or false, that the meaning of the picture
lies.
 Same thoughts occur later when LUDWIG
WITTGENSTEIN, describes spoken and written language,
that is proposition, as one of these pictures and defines
its meaning in terms of its capacity for being true or false,
the limits of what can be said, therefore are defined by
the logic rules. The limits of my language mean the limit
of my world . The logic of language shows how elements
fits state of affairs and how state of affairs in wider
constellations can be linked together, we could decide on
the basis of this logic.
Moreover, LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN, argues that the
world consist of state affairs, and not of things. These
constellations , can be reproduced in a picture, rather as
the course of events in car accident , might be retraced in
court of law by the use of models.
Human Being as an Embodied Spirit
What is Human Being?
Embodied spirit is the living animating core within each of us, the
driving force behind all that we think, say and do.
Sensations, feelings, insights, fancies -- all these are private and,
except through symbols and at second hand, incommunicable. We
can pool information about experiences, but never the experiences
themselves. From family to nation, every human group is a society
of island universes.
What is Embodied Spirit?
"Every embodied spirit is doomed to suffer and enjoy in solitude"
The human being is a complex matter and many believe that just
trying to understand life and what it means to be human is a futile
undertaking.
by Aldous Huxley
WHAT IS MY BEING RELATIONSHIP TO MY BODY
OUR BODIES
Bodies are in time and space, body functions in accordance
with natural laws, our bodies are subject to the laws of physics,
involving mass, inertia, torque and other things. Bodies also work
in accordance with the laws of biology and chemistry, and our
abilities are also determined by our anatomy as a species which
has continually evolved throughout time. We function in
accordance with the natural laws. Subject to the Laws of Physics,
involving mass, inertia, torque and other things. Our bodies also
works in accordance with the laws of biology and chemistry, and
our abilities are also determined by our anatomy as a species
which has continually evolved throughout time.
The bodies that man has, in the context of being a species which
are also creatures of time and space, are physically conditioned by
and subject to natural laws, simply because our bodies are
physical things.
 Most of the time , we do not notice how utterly physical our
bodies are in our pre occupation with the everyday grind of things.
When do we encounter necessarily material explanation for the
body, involving the science, body may be move to marvel at or
regret the mechanics and anatomy of our bodies, and then maybe,
rest content with the scientific explanation and go about with our
daily lives. WE ALSO ORDINARILY SUPPOSE THAT THERE ARE
MUCH MORE TO OURSELVES THAN OUR BODIES. We also say that
we have minds apart from having our bodies. , we also intuitively
hold that we have minds that are not limited the same way that
our bodies are. OUR INTELLECT, OUR WILL , OUR IMAGINATION,
OUR RATIONALITY, ALL OF WHICH we take to be aspects of the
mind----seems to be both less spatio-temporarily constrained as
compared to our bodies and are also part and parcel of who we
are. On one hand , I have a body and on the other hand , I also
have mind, which is different from my body. We ordinarily
suppose that the mind controls the body.
 Or maybe this controller is the soul, which is the essence of
ourselves, and the body contains it, perhaps similar to how jar
contains water, Put these two metaphor together and say that
maybe were like Iron Man or the gundam Pilots---our bodies are
perhaps like mecha-suits , Mind-Body problem is concerned with
this very same idea. Briefly stated, it asks what the relation is
between the Physical and the Mental, WHAT PRECISELY IS A
THOUGHT, IS IT ITSELF A MENTAL PROCESS , OR IS IT A PHYSICAL
PROCESS.
HAVING BODIES
PHILOSOPHERS Throughout History have also talk about the
body, although when they do so, they do so within the discussion
of their very diverse philosophical system----This is important to
note, because first and foremost, the body is discussed in the
context of or interrelated with a larger system of thought, FRENCH
MATHEMATICIAN RENE DESCARTE , usually credited as the thinker
who systematically articulated the modern dualism between the
 mind and the body, although his main concern were formulating a
comprehensive account of how we come to know, inspired by the
clarity and distinctive accuracy of the physical and mathematical
sciences.
EXISTENTIALISM : FREEDOM
One’s search for truth might be based on one attitude
or outlook. Take for instance, EXISTENTIALISM, unlike
phenomenology, existentialism is not primarily a
philosophical method. Neither is it exactly a set of
doctrines but more of an outlook or attitude supported
by diverse doctrines centered on certain common
themes. THE THEMES INCLUDE;
The Human condition or relation of the individual to the
world;
The Human response to that condition;
Being , especially the difference between the being of
person and being of other kind of things;
Human Freedom;
The Significance(and avoidability) of choice and decision
in the absence of certainty;
The Concreteness and Subjectivity of life as lived,
against abstractions and false objectifications.
If we may generalize for just a moment, we might suggest
that the existentialist share a concern for the individual
and personal responsibility. Existentialism is often
thought to be anti-religious; nevertheless, there has been
a strong current of Christian existentialism beginning
with the 19th century danish Philosopher KIERKEGAARD,
as the first existentialist, insisted that the authentic self
was the personal chosen self , as opposed to the public
or “HERD” identity. NIETZSCHE TOOK THIS VIEW OF
Of opposition of the genuine individual versus the
PUBLIC HERD IDENTITY. Both KIERKEGAARD AND
NIETZSCHE influence HEIDEGGER whose conception of
ownness came to dominate contemporary existentialist
thought.
A human person is an embodied spirit (a "soul") whose
nature has numerous bodily, affective, cognitive,
volitional and gender capacities, the expression of which
may lead by freedom to flourishing in a harmony with
one's nature or dysfunction against one's nature,
ultimately shaped by and finding their relational telos in
the love of neighbor and union with God, relationships
made possibly by our nature but realized only by the
ministry of the indwelling Spirit of God.
for St. Thomas:
A human person is a personal being possessing its
intellectual nature as joined in a natural unity with a
material body. this unity called "man" as "a rational
animal." The Human Being as an Embodied Spirit is one
which is expressed fully, shining for all the world to see.
It is our right and responsibility to give our Spirit its
fullest expression in this body. The opportunity to
become embodied and whole begins at birth and
continues throughout life.
A human being is a biosocial being and represents the
highest level of development of all living organisms on
earth, the subject of labour, of the social forms of life,
communication and consciousness.
Spirit VS Soul
Spirit
it consist of our mind, will and emotions.
it is our personality, thoughts, attitudes, and what makes
us unique.
immaterial part of a human being or animal, regarded as
immortal.
soul is mortal, meaning it dies. Soul
the real person inside us.
it is our life force
it gives life to the body.
has no feeling and cannot think
the part of us that never dies, that is eternal, infinite and
limitless.
Where does the spirit go after death?
Speaking about man’s death
“The dust returns to the earth just as it happened to be
and the spirit itself returns to the true God who gave it.”
- Ecclesiastes 12:7

Christian:
Islam:
the Angel of Death or Izraeel comes to take the spirit out
of the body and puts it in a place called the "Barzakh".
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
METAPHYSICS, is really only an extension of a fundamental and
necessary drive in every human being to know what is real. The
question is how to account for this unreal thing in terms of what
you can accept as real. THUS A VERY BIG PART OF A
METAPHYSICIAN’S TASK IS TO EXPLAIN THAT PART OF OUR
EXPERIENCE , WHICH WE CALL UNREAL IN TERMS OF WHAT WE
CALL REALITY. Both the idealist and the materialist metaphysical
theories are similarly based on unobservable entities; MIND and
MATTER. We could see things made of matter such as book or a
chair; but we cannot see the underlying matter itself. Although we
can experience in our minds , thoughts , ideas, desires and
fantasies, we cannot observe or experience the mind itself that is
having these thoughts, ideas and desire. It is this tendency to
explain the oservable in terms of the unobservable that has given
metaphysics a bad name to more down-to-earth philosophers.
ETHICS, HOW DO WE TELL GOOD FROM EVIL / WHAT IS
RIGHT FROM WHAT IS WRONG? , Is that branch of
Philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and
evaluates human actions.
ETHICS , is generally a study of the nature of moral
judgments. PHILOSOPHICAL ETHICS , attempts to provide
an account of our fundamental ethical Ideas. Whereas
RELIGION , has often motivated individuals to obey the
moral code of their society, philosophy is not content
with traditional or habitual ethics but adopts a critical
perspective. It insists that obedience to moral law be
given a rational foundation. In the thought of SOCRATES
we see the beginning of a transition from a traditional
Religion-based morality to philosophical ethics.
REFLECTION, MEDITATION and CONVERSATIONS THAT
ROCKED THE WORLD,
WHAT CONSTITUTE A HUMAN PERSON

PLATO , SOCRATES , ARISTOTLE

SOCRATES- to be happy, a person has to live a virtuous
life. VIRTUE is not something to be taught or acquired
through education, but rather, it is merely an awakening
of the seeds of good deeds that lay dormant in the
Mind and heart of a person. KNOWING What is in the
mind and heart of a human being is achieved through self-
knowledge. Thus knowledge does not mean only
theoretical or speculative , but a practical one. Practical
knowledge means that one does not only know the rules
of right living, but one lives them. Hence for SOCRATES ,
TRUE KNOWLEDGE MEANS WISDOM, which in turn ,
means VIRTUE. The Greek word ARETE , which means
translate as virtue, seems originally to have been
associated with valor in battle and may be connected with
the name of the GREEK GOD OF WAR, ARETE and its
English equivalent, VIRTUE has connotation of MACHISMO
and MANLINESS.
So when Socrates came to define VIRTUE, he thought of
COURAGE as one of its prime components, and he came
up with the proposition that courage, therefore as
VIRTUE IS ALSO KNOWLEDGE.
EPISTEMOLOGY
meaning (logical discourse') is the branch of philosophy
concerned with the theory of knowledge.
studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the
rationality of belief. Much of the debate in epistemology
centers on four areas: the philosophical analysis of the
nature of knowledge and how it relates to such concepts
as (1)truth, belief, and justification, (2) various problems
of skepticism, (3) the sources and scope of knowledge
and justified belief, and (4) the criteria for knowledge and
justification.
EPISTEMOLOGY , Explains,
1. HOW WE KNOW WHAT WE CLAIM TO KNOW
2. How we can find out what we wish to know
3. How we can differentiate truth from falsehood,
epistemology addresses varied problems: the reliability,
extent, and kinds of knowledge , truth, language , and
science and scientific knowledge.