Basic Radiation Physics

Ngangom Robert
Medical Physicist
Deptt. Of Radiotherapy
PGIMER Chandigarh
 SI Units
• It is International System of units.
• Originated in France in 1800s during French
revolution and stands for “Systeme
International”.
• It is the modern form of metric system most
commonly and widely used system of
measurement.
• It is maintained by a small agency in Paris, France
called as International Bureau of Weights and
Measure.
 Metric System
• Metric system is
internationally
accepted decimal
system of
measurements. Only
USA, Myanmar and
Liberia have not
officially adopted this
system of units.
 SI Units cont.....
SI Units

Base units:- Derived units:-

Independent unit Defined
without referring algebraically from
to any other units. the base units.

They are 7 in Currently there

numbers are 22 derived
units .
 SI Units cont.....
Base units:-
Sl. No. Quantity SI Unit Unit symbol
1 Distance Meter m
2 Mass Kilogram kg
3 Time Second s
4 Current Ampere A
5 Temperature Kelvin K
6 Amount of Mole mol
substance
7 Light intensity Candela cd
 SI Units cont.....
Derived Units:-
SL. No. Quantity SI Units
Sl. No. Quantity SI Units
12 Magnetic flux Weber
1 Plane angle radian
13 Magnetic Tesla
2 Solid angle steradian
intensity
3 Force Newton
14 inductance Henry
4 Pressure Pascal
15 illuminance Lux
5 Energy Joule
16 Light flux Lumen
6 power Watts
17 frequancy Hertz
7 charge Coulomb
18 Radiation dose Gray
8 potential Volts
19 Catalytic activity Katal
9 capacitance Farad
20 temperature Celcius
10 resistance Ohms
21 radioactivity Becquerel
11 conductance Siemens
22 Radiation dose sievert
 Force
• A force is any interaction (push or pull) upon
an object when unopposed will change the
motion of it resulting changes in its velocity.
• Force has both magnitude and direction. So its
a vector quantity.
• The SI unit of force is Newton.
• Force, F = m.a where a = acceleration,
m = mass
1 Newton = 1kg. m/sec2
 Force cont....
Force

Contact force :- Action at a distant force:-

Force resulting due to Forces resulting due to
interaction between two interaction between two
objects in physical objects without any
contact. physical contact.

Example :- frictional Example:-

force, Gravitational force,
Air resistance force etc. magnetic force, electric
force.
 Mass
• Mass is the fundamental measure of the amount
of matter in the object.
• It is a measure of an object's resistance to
acceleration (a change in its state of motion)
when a force is applied.
• For a given applied force, large masses are
accelerated to a small extent, and small masses
are accelerated to a large extent. The following
formula applies:
F = ma
• Its SI unit is kilogram (kg).
 Mass and weight
• Mass is not the same thing as weight. Weight has
meaning only when an object having a specific
mass is placed in an acceleration field, such as
the gravitational field of the earth.
• The weight of an object is the force of gravity on
the object and may be defined as the mass times
the acceleration of gravity, w = mg.
Example:- If an object has mass 1kg on the earth,
it will have same 1kg mass on the moon, but
weight 9.8Newton on earth and 1.6 Newton on
moon.
 Momentum
• The momentum of a particle is defined as the product of
its mass times its velocity.
• Its is given by: p = mass × velocity.
• It is a vector quantity.
• Conservation of linear momentum:
Total momentum before = total momentum after
Mu1 + mu2 = Mv1 + mv2
 Momentum
• Angular momentum:- The quantity of rotation
of a body, which is the product of its moment
of inertia and its angular velocity.
L = Iω
Its is also defined as moment of linear
momentum as:- L = r × p =r × mv
 Work
• Work is said to be done when a force F apply
to a body displaced it through a certain
distance.
• Work = Force x Displacement
• W = F.d =FdcosƟ

SI unit of work is
Joule.
 Energy
• Energy is the capacity of a physical system to perform
work.
• The various forms of energy are:-
• SI unit is Joule.
• A Scalar quantity.
 Energy
• Kinetic Energy: It is the energy due to motion. Ex: moving
wind, moving water, machines, sound, baseball flying in the
air etc. The Kinetic energy of a body of mass “m” moving with
velocity “v” is given by

Potential Energy: It is an energy which is

stored and measured by the amount of work
done. Ex, water in a lake, book on a table etc.
Gravitational Potential energy is calculated
where ‘m’ is the mass in kilograms, ‘g’ is the
acceleration due to gravity and ‘h’ is the height
in meters.
Potential Energy = m × g × h
 Energy
• Conservation of Energy:- According to conservation of energy,
energy can neither be created nor destroyed by itself. It can
only be transformed.
 Power
(1). Power is the rate of doing work.
(2). Has no direction. So a scalar quantity.
(3). Power = work/time,
Power can also be written as =

(4). SI Unit is Watt which is

equal to Joule/second.
 Power
• Another unit is Horse Power which was used by
James Watt.

1 Horse Power is the power required to lift 550

pounds of weight by 1 foot in one second and is
appx equals = 746 Watts.
 Pressure
(1). Pressure is defined as the perpendicular force
applied per unit surface area.
(2). Pressure = Force/ Area.
(3). SI unit is Pascal and
1 Pascal = 1 Newton/ Metre2.
 Pressure
(5). Other units of pressure are:-
(a). Bar, 1 Bar = 100000 Pascal
(b). psi, 1 psi = 6894.76 Pascal
(c). Atmosphere, 1 atm = 101325 Pascal
 Heat
Heat is the form of energy that is transferred
between two substances at different temperatures.
The direction of energy flow is from the substance of
higher temperature to the substance of lower
temperature till the two body attains same
temperature.
 Heat
The SI unit for heat is the joule (J).
Heat is frequently also measured in the calorie
(cal), which is defined as "the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one gram of
water through one degrees Celsius.”
Heat transfer:-
 Heat and Temperature
Temperature is the measure of hotness or coldness
of matter. It is measured in degrees Celsius (C) or
Fahrenheit (F) scale, or in kelvin (K).
In simplest terms, temperature is how hot or cold an
object is, while heat is the energy that flows from a
hotter object to a cooler one.
For example, hand feel cool with ice cube.
 Waves
Waves:-
A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy
progressively from one location to another in
a medium without transferring matter.
 Waves
(1). The highest point on a wave is called the Crest. The lowest
point is called the trough.
(2). Distance between Crest to Crest or Trough to Trough is called
Wavelength.
(3). The maximum displacement from the undisturbed position in
the medium of a wave is called Amplitude.

Wavelength (λ)
Amplitude
 Waves
Wave frequency:
It is the number of vibration per second and is measured in unit Hertz.
More is the vibration per second higher
is the frequency and vice versa.
Example:- 20 vibration per second
means 20 Hertz.

Wave velocity:
Its is the distance travel by wave motion per unit time and is given as
Wave velocity = wavelength x frequency
 Waves
Waves can be classified into:-
(1). Electromagnetic waves:- Electromagnetic waves are
waves that have no medium to travel. It is a wave that is
capable of transmitting its energy through an empty
space or vacuum. Electromagnetic waves are caused
because of the varying magnetic and electric fields.
Example: Light waves, radio waves, micro waves, X rays, TV
transmissions etc.
 Waves
(2). Mechanical waves:- Mechanical wave is a wave that
is not capable of transmitting its energy through a
vacuum. They requires a material medium (solid,
liquid or gas) for its propagation.
Examples: Sound waves, water waves, ocean waves,
vibration of string, earthquake waves, ultra sounds,
and oscillations in spring etc.
 Waves
Mechanical waves are divided into:-

Transverse wave:- In a transverse

wave the particle displacement is
perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation.

Longitudinal waves:- In a
longitudinal wave the particle
displacement is parallel to the
direction of wave propagation.
 Oscillations
Oscillations occur when a system is disturbed from a
position of stable equilibrium. The displacement from
equilibrium changes periodically over time.
So oscillations is nothing but motions that repeat
themselves.

Examples:
simple
pendulum, a
mass on a
spring
 Oscillations
When the time between repetitions is constant, the
oscillation is called a harmonic motion and the time
between repetitions is called the period.

Simple Harmonic Motion are harmonic motion which are

sinusoidal.
SHM has some interesting properties:-
(1). The graph of position against time for SHM is a sinusoidal.
(2). It is circular motion viewed in 1 dimension.
(3). It always oscillates about a fixed point (equilibrium or mean
position)
(4). There is always a restoring force trying to return the oscillating
object to its equilibrium position.
Oscillation
Force in SHM:-
By Hooke’s law force is given
as F = -kx, and by Newton’s
2nd law F = ma.
So a = -(k/m)x
The general rule is that
a α –x , a = - (constant)x
a = - ω2x where ω = angular
velocity. This is the general
equation of all SHM.
Energy in SHM:-

= constant
Damped SHM:-
Energy is dissipated out of
the system and magnitude
decreases exponentially
with time.
Sound:-
• Sound is a longitudinal, mechanical wave.
• Sound can travel through any medium, but it cannot
travel through a vacuum. There is no sound in outer
space.
• Sound is a variation in pressure. A region of
increased pressure on a sound wave is called a
compression. A region of decreased pressure on a
sound wave is called a rarefaction.
Speed of sound:-
The speed of sound is given by Newton-Laplace formula.
where K is the elastic bulk modulus and
ρ is the density of the medium.
K = pressure/strain

Frequency and pitch:- The frequency of a sound wave is called it pitch. High
frequency sounds are said to be "high pitched" or just "high";
Low frequency sounds are said to be "low pitched" or just "low".

Humans are generally capable of hearing sounds between 20 Hz and 20

kHz. Sounds with frequencies above the range of human hearing are
called ultrasound. Sounds with frequencies below the range of human
hearing are called infrasound.
Atomic structure:

Electrons

Nucleus
 Nucleus
(1). A nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons.
These two particle types are collectively called
nucleons, i.e. particles which inhabit the nucleus.
(2). The mass of a proton is roughly equal to the mass of a
neutron and each of these is about 2,000 times the
mass of an electron.
So most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the
small region at its core.
(3). Proton is positively charged and the neutron has no
charge. An atom all on its own is electrically neutral.
The number of protons in the nucleus of such an atom
must therefore equal the number of electrons orbiting
that atom.
 Rutherford’s model of atom:-
He bombarded a thin metallic foil
(thickness of 100 nm which is about
104 atoms) with parallel streams of α
particles.

Results of experiment:-

(i) Most of the α particles passed through the gold foil un-
deflected.
(ii) A small fraction of the α particles was deflected by
small angles.
(iii) A very few α particles (1 in 20,000) bounced back, that
is, were deflected by nearly 180°.
On the basis of the observations, Rutherford drew the
following conclusions regarding the structure of atom :

(i) Most of the space in the atom is empty as most of the α particles
passed through the foil un-deflected.
(ii) A few positively charged α particles were deflected. The deflection
must be due to enormous repulsive force showing that the positive
charge of the atom is not spread throughout the atom as Thomson
had presumed. The positive charge has to be concentrated in a very
small volume that repelled and deflected the positively charged α
particles.

(iii) Calculations by Rutherford showed that the volume occupied by

the nucleus is negligibly small as compared to the total volume of the
atom. The radius of the atom is about 10–10 m, while that of nucleus is
10–15 m.
Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of atom . According to
this model :
(i) The positive charge and most of the mass of the atom was
densely concentrated in extremely small region. This very
small portion of the atom was called nucleus by Rutherford.
(ii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons
that move around the nucleus with a very
high speed in circular paths called orbits.
Thus, Rutherford’s model of atom
resembles the solar system in which the
nucleus plays the role of sun and the
electrons that of revolving planets.

(iii) Electrons and the nucleus are held

together by electrostatic forces of
attraction.
 Bohr model of atom:-
Bohr proposed that the orbiting electron could only exist in certain
special states of motion - called stationary states, in which no
electromagnetic radiation was emitted.
In these states, the angular momentum of the electron L takes on
integer values of Planck's constant divided by 2π i.e.

In these stationary states, the electron angular

momentum can take on values ,
but never non-integer values. This is known as
quantization of angular momentum, and was
one of Bohr's key hypotheses.
Bohr model of atom:-
Bohr model of atom:-
Bohr model of atom:-
 Bohr model of atom:-
Bohr’s theory can also be applied to the ions containing
only one electron, similar to that present in hydrogen atom.
For example, He+ , Li2+ , Be3+ and so on. The energies of the
stationary states associated with these kinds of ions (also
known as hydrogen like species) are given by the
expression.
If the electron makes transition from initial state to final
state then:
In terms of wavenumber.
Bohr model of atom:-
 Bohr theory of atom
Electrons revolve around a positively charged nucleus in discrete
orbits (K, L, M or n=1, 2, 3 respectively) with specific levels of
energy.
Electrons positions are fixed however, an electron can jump to
higher or lower energy level by absorption or emission of
energy respectively as shown in Figure.

Both energy and angular momentum

are quantized.
 Quantum Model of the Atom
Rutherford’s and Bohr’s model of the atom focused on
describing the path of the electron around the nucleus
like a particle.
Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961)
treated the electron as a wave.

– The modern description of the electrons in atoms, the

quantum mechanical model, comes from the mathematical
solutions to the Schrödinger equation.

Erwin Schrödinger
1887-1961
De Broglie’s Hypothesis
– Particles have wave characteristics
– Waves have particle characteristics
– λ = h/mv Louis de Broglie
1892 – 1987
Wave-Particle Duality of Nature
Waves properties are significant at small
momentum.
Louis de Broglie
– Applied wave-particle theory to electrons
– electrons exhibit wave properties
Q1. What will be the wavelength of a ball of mass
0.1 kg moving with a velocity of 10 m s–1 ?
Q2. The mass of an electron is 9.1×10–31 kg. If its
K.E. is 3.0×10–25 J, calculate its wavelength.
Q3. Calculate the mass of a photon with
wavelength 3.6 Å.
Quantized wavelengths:-
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Werner Heisenberg
1901 – 1976

– Impossible to know both the velocity and position

of an electron at the same time.
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
• In order to observe an electron, one would need to hit it
with photons having a very short wavelength.
• Short wavelength photons would have a high frequency
and a great deal of energy.
• If one were to hit an electron, it would cause the motion
and the speed of the electron to change.
• Lower energy photons would have a smaller effect but
would not give precise information.
• The uncertainty in position and momentum is related as:
 Significance of Uncertainty Principle

One of the important implications of the Heisenberg

Uncertainty Principle is that it rules out existence of definite
paths or trajectories of electrons and other similar particles.

Q1. A microscope using suitable photons is employed to locate

an electron in an atom within a distance of 0.1 Å. What is the
uncertainty involved in the measurement of its velocity?
 Atomic Orbital or electron cloud:-
Quantum mechanical model of atom says that electrons are not
confined in a definite orbit but exist as electron cloud around the
nucleus.
This region in space around the nucleus where the probability of
finding the electron is very high (probability of 90%) is called as
orbital.

The cloud is more

dense where the
probability of
finding the electron
is high.

Orbital
 How the shape of orbital determine?

For a given orbital, only that

boundary surface diagram of
constant probability density |Ψ|2
is taken to be good representation
of the shape of the orbital which
encloses a region or volume in
which the probability of finding
the electron is very high, say, 90%.
 THE FOUR QUANTUM NUMBERS
The quantum numbers are parameters that describe the distribution
of electrons in the atom, and therefore its fundamental nature. They
are:
1. PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n) - Represents the main energy
level, or shell, occupied by an electron. It is always a positive integer,
that is n = 1, 2, 3 ...
The principal Quantum Number identifies the shell of the atom.
For n = 1, 2, 3, 4 ...... Shell = K, L, M, N.....
 What does the principal quantum number tells:
(1). It gives Energy Level.
(2). Size of the orbital.
(3). Relative distance of the electron from the nucleus
n = 1, 2, 3, 4 . . .
As n increases for a given atom, so does the average distance of
the electrons from the nucleus.

1s

2s

3s
2. SECONDARY QUANTUM NUMBER (l) - Represents the energy
sublevel, or type of orbital, occupied by the electron.
It also gives the shape of the Orbital.
The value of l depends on the value of n such that l = 0, 1, ...
n-1. This number is sometimes also called Azimuthal Quantum
Number and it gives the orbital angular momentum.
Each shell consists of one or more subshells or sub-levels.
The number of subshells in a principal shell is equal to the
value of n.
Examples: n =1, l =0; n =2, l = 0, 1; n =3, l = 0,1,2; ..........
Azimuthal Q.N. l = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.....
Sub-shell Notation. s, p, d, f, g, h....
Shape of the Orbital
 Shape of s Orbital
The shape of s Orbital is spherical as there is equal probability
of finding the electrons in all directions at equal distances.

(a) Electron probability (b) Contour probability (c) Radial probability

The shape of p orbital is Dumb bell shape
 The shape of d Orbital
The first four of the five d orbital is double dumbbell shape
whereas the fifth is Donut shape.
3. MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (ml )
This gives information about the spatial orientation of the
orbital with respect to standard set of co-ordinate axis in
3D space.
For any sub-shell (defined by ‘l’ value) there are 2l+1
possible values of ml. Since the type of orbital is
determined by l, the value of ml ranges between -l and +l
such that ml = -l, ...0, ...+l.
e.g. For l=0, ml=0. which is s orbital and has only one
orientation.
For l=1, ml= -1, 0, 1. which is p orbital and has three
different orientations.
For l=2, ml=-2, -1, 0, 1, 2. which is d orbital and has five
different orientation.
4. SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (mS ) –
Although electrons are too small to observe directly, we can
detect the magnetic field that they exert.
This magnetic field is generated by electron spin, the negatively
charged electron spinning on an axis.
The magnetic field produced by an electron occurs in one of two
directions, indicating that electron spin is quantized.

That is, an electron has only two possible spin states. In one spin
state, the electron produces a magnetic field with the North pole in
one direction. In the other spin state, the North pole is in the
opposite direction.
This two states are denoted as Spin Up and Spin Down states.
The allowed values for the spin quantum number ms are +1/2 and
-1/2.
 Aufbau Principle
The word ‘aufbau’ in German means
‘building up’. The building up of
orbitals means the filling up of orbitals
with electrons.
The principle states :
In the ground state of the atoms, the
orbitals are filled in order of their
increasing energies. It means electrons
first occupy the lowest energy orbital
available to them and enter into higher
energy orbitals only after the lower
energy orbitals are filled.
 Pauli Exclusion Principle
This principle was given by Austrian scientist Wolfgang Pauli
(1926). According to this principle : No two electrons in an atom
can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
It can also be stated as : “Only two electrons may exist in the
same orbital and these electrons must have opposite spin.”

Allowed Sets of Quantum Numbers for Electrons in Atoms

Level n 1 2 3

Sublevel l 0 0 1 0 1 2

Orbital ml 0 0 1 0 -1 0 1 0 -1 2 1 0 -1 -2

= +1/2
Spin ms

= -1/2
 Radioactivity
Radioactivity is a process by which an unstable nucleus
(parent) decays into a new nuclear configuration (daughter)
that may be stable or unstable.
If the daughter is unstable, it will decay further through a
chain of decays until a stable configuration is attained.
Henri Becquerel discovered natural radioactivity in 1896.
Other names used for radioactive decay are:
1. Nuclear decay.
2. Nuclear disintegration.
3. Nuclear transformation.
4. Nuclear transmutation.
5. Radioactive decay.
 Radioactivity
The energy difference between the two quantum
states of parent and daughter is called the decay
energy Q.
The decay energy Q is emitted:
1. In the form of electromagnetic radiation (gamma
rays)
or
2. In the form of kinetic energy of the reaction
products.
 Radioactivity
If N is the numbers of atoms present at any instant of time
t. Then activity A(t) is given by:
A(t) =
This leads to exponential law of radioactive decay as:

where N(0) is the initial numbers of atoms at time t = 0

The constant of proportionality λ is called as the Decay
Constant and is:

The mean lifetime of the atoms is:

 Radioactivity
The half life of the radioactive material is:

= 0.693/ λ
Which is the time taken to decay half of its atom.
 Activity
Activity represents the total number of disintegrations
(decays) of parent nuclei per unit time.
SI unit of activity is the becquerel (1 Bq = 1 s-1).
The older unit of activity is the curie ,
originally defined as the activity of 1 g of radium-226.
(1 Ci = 3.7×1010 s-1)
i.e. 1Ci = 3.7×1010 Bq
Nuclear Transformation
Line of stability
 Alpha Decay
Alpha decay is nuclear transformation in which heavy
atoms A ≈ 60-100 transform to lighter stable atoms by
shedding some protons and neutrons in the form of alpha
particle .
 Alpha Decay
The net energy released in the alpha decay is equal
to sum of the kinetic energies of the fragments.
Q = TX' + Tα
The kinetic energy of alpha particle released from
naturally occurring radionuclide is in the range of
4MeV to 9MeV.

Alpha Particles are mono-energetic.

 Beta plus Decay
Beta plus decay is a nuclear transformation in which
proton-rich radioactive parent nucleus transforms a proton
into a neutron.
Positron and neutrino, sharing the available energy, are
ejected from the parent nucleus. Atomic number Z of the
parent decreases by one; the atomic mass number A
remains the same.

p → n + e+ +ʋe
 Beta minus Decay
Beta minus decay is a nuclear transformation in which
Neutron-rich radioactive parent nucleus transforms a
neutron into a proton.
Electron and anti-neutrino, sharing the available energy,
are ejected from the parent nucleus.
Atomic number Z of the parent increases by one; the
atomic mass number A remains the same.
Average energy of a beta spectrum is about one-third
of its maximum energy or:
Eav = Emax/3
 Electron Capture
Electron capture decay is a nuclear transformation in
which nucleus captures an atomic orbital electron (usually
K shell).
Proton transforms into a neutron and neutrino is ejected.
Atomic number Z of the parent decreases by one; the
atomic mass number A remains the same.
 Internal conversion
Internal conversion is a nuclear transformation in which
nuclear de-excitation energy is transferred to an orbital
electron (usually K shell).
Electron is emitted from the atom with a kinetic energy
equal to the de-excitation energy less the electron binding
energy.
Resulting shell vacancy is filled with a higher-level orbital
electron and the transition energy is emitted in the form of
characteristic photons or Auger electrons.
 Gamma Decay
Gamma decay is a nuclear transformation in which an
excited parent nucleus P, generally produced through alpha
decay, beta minus decay or beta plus decay, attains its
ground state through emission of one or several gamma
photons.
Atomic number Z and atomic mass number A do not
change in gamma decay.
 Spontaneous Fission
Some nuclei can spontaneously undergo a fission, even
outside the particular conditions found in a nuclear reactor.
In the process a heavy nuclide splits into two lighter nuclei,
of roughly the same mass with the emission of neutrons.

The fission fragments are generally radioactive and decay

by a chain of β emissions toward stable nuclei. Example:
 Nuclear Reactions
The nuclear reaction is defined as the process of collision of
two nuclei or a nucleus and a sub-atomic particle like a proton,
a neutron, or energetic electron to produced products which
are different from initial particles
Or
to change the energy states of the interacting species.

The general form of a nuclear reaction in which particle a,

interacts with nucleus X, producing particle b and nucleus Y.
a+X→Y+b
 Q value of the reaction
Reaction energy Q , determined by mass difference between
the initial and final sets of particles
Q = Δmc2 = (ma+mX -mY -mb)c2
If Q > 0, reaction is exothermic (energy released as
kinetic energy and γ- rays)
If Q < 0, reaction is endothermic. There is a threshold
of the energy of the incoming particle to make the
reaction happen.
Q = 0 is elastic scattering. Total kinetic energy remains
constant.
 Nuclear Reactions
There are two main types of nuclear reactions that can release
energy: 1. Fission and 2. Fusion.
Fission: The process of causing a large nucleus (A > 120) to split
into multiple smaller nuclei, releasing energy in the process.
Discovered in 1938 by Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassman and Lise
Meitner.
Fission products will often emit neutrons because the N/Z ratio is
greater.
It can start when the large nuclei absorbs a neutron, causing it to
become unstable to the point that it falls apart.
 Fission
The nuclear fission is best explained by liquid drop
model.
After absorbing the neutron, a compound nucleus
is formed which is highly unstable.
It vibrates like a liquid drop and then splits into
fragments.
This type of fission reaction is called Induced
fission nuclear reactions.
 Fission
Uranium is most commonly used in nuclear
reactors and nuclear weapons. It has two naturally
occurring isotopes U238(99.3%) and U235(0.7%).

Fission fragments are highly unstable because

they are so neutron rich.
Prompt neutrons are emitted simultaneously with
the fission process. Even after prompt neutrons
are released, the fission fragments undergo beta
decay, releasing more energy.
 Fission
The energy released in the fission process of U235
is:- Q =(mU235 + mn - mBa144 - mKr90 - 3mn)c2

Q=?
Most of the ~200 MeV released in fission goes to
the kinetic energy of the fission products, but the
neutrons, beta particles, neutrinos, and gamma
rays typically carry away 30–40 MeV of the
kinetic energy.
 Fusion
If two light nuclei fuse together, they also form a
nucleus with a larger binding energy per nucleon
and energy is released. This reaction is called
nuclear fusion.
After fusion, the total mass
of the light nuclei formed
in the fusion process is less
than the total mass of the
nuclei that fused.
That mass difference is
given as energy by E=mc2
 Fusion
The most common fusion nuclear reactions on
earth are:

This very basic fusion, called a proton-proton

chain, is the source of energy for stars like our
Sun.
Fusion
 Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor is a device designed to maintain a chain
reaction producing a steady flow of neutrons generated by
the fission of heavy nuclei. They are classified either by their purpose
or by their design features.
In terms of purpose, they are either research reactors or power
reactors.
Research reactors are operated at universities and research centres.
These reactors generate neutrons for multiple purposes, including
producing radiopharmaceuticals for medical diagnosis and therapy,
testing materials and conducting basic research.
Power reactors are usually found in nuclear power plants. They are
dedicated to generate heat mainly for electricity production. In the
form of smaller units, they also power ships, submarines etc.
 Power Reactors

In boiling water reactors (BWRs) the moderating water turns into

steam, which drives a turbine producing electricity.
 Power Reactors

In pressurised water reactors (PWRs) the moderating water is under

high pressure and circulates from the reactor to an external heat
exchanger where it produces steam, which drives a turbine.
Reactor Components
 Reactor Components
1.Fuel – pellets of UO2 (1cm diam. by 1.5 cm long) arranged in
tubes to form fuel rods. They are usually formed into fuel
assemblies in the core.
2. Moderator – usually water but may be graphite or heavy
water.
3.Control rods – Made with neutron absorbing material included
so that inserting or withdrawing the rod controls or halts the
rate of reaction.
4.Coolant- Liquid or gas circulating in the core to carry away heat
5.Steam generator – Part of cooling system where the reactor
heat is used to make steam to drive the turbines.
6.Containment –Structure round core to protect it from
intrusion and protect the outside from radiation in case of a
major malfunction.
 Nuclear reactor basic principles
1. Neutron induced fission
releases energy plus extra
“fast” neutrons.
2. “Fast” neutrons are slowed
down by a “moderator” such
as water or graphite, allowing
chain reaction to take place
3. Chain reaction is controlled
by controlling the condition of
the moderator, or by use of
neutron absorbing materials
(e.g. cadmium control rods)
4. Heat is removed by some
form of heat exchanger where
it is used to run a heat engine.
 Interactions of radiation with matter
Photon Interactions
Photons are individual units of energy. As an x-ray beam or gamma
radiation passes through an object, three possible outcome each
photon may occurs, as shown in the figure below:

1. It can penetrate the section of

matter without interacting.
2. It can interact with the matter
and be completely absorbed by
depositing its energy.
3. It can interact and be scattered
or deflected from its original
direction and deposit part of its
energy.
 PHOTON INTERACTION RATES
Attenuation
The attenuation of a beam of particles with identical energies, all
travelling in the same direction, is described by an exponential law.
If at some distance into the material N0 particles are moving
through a slab of material, then after penetrating an extra
distance x it is found that the number of particles in the beam is
reduced to N given by:
The quantity μl is known as the linear attenuation coefficient; it is
a measure of how rapidly the original photons are removed from
the beam.
 Photon Interaction
Pair Production:-
1. Conversion of a photon into an electron-positron pair when γ-
ray energy exceeds twice the rest mass energy of an electron.
 Photon Interaction
2. So the threshold energy for pair production is 1.02MeV.
3. It takes place in the nuclear coulombic field of the nucleus.
4. All the energy above 1.02MeV is shared between electron and
positron as kinetic energy.
5. So pair- production is energy conversion to mass using Einstein
equation, E = mc2.
 Neutron Interaction
• Neutron carry no charge, so cannot interact with matter by
coulombic force.
• Neutron interact only with the nucleus of the absorbing
medium.
• Depending upon the energy of the neutrons, they interact
with nucleus in the following ways:-
1. Elastic scattering
2. Inelastic scattering
3. Spallation reaction
4. Transmutation
5. Radiative capture
 Neutron Interaction
Elastic Scattering:- In an elastic scattering process kinetic energy
and momentum are both conserved. When a neutron scatters
elastically from a nucleus it gives some of its kinetic energy to the
nucleus, but the nucleus does not go into an excited state.

It occurs in slow neutrons (0 – 0.005eV).

Inelastic Scattering: Some of the neutron's kinetic energy is
transferred to internal energy of the target nucleus which is left in
an excited state and later decays by emitting neutrons or gamma
radiation.

It occurs for fast neutrons (0.1 – 10MeV).

 Neutron Interaction
Transmutation:- Reaction in which an element changes into
another element.
Neutrons of all energies are capable of transmutation.
n + 5B10 → 3Li7 + α
Radiative Capture:- Nucleus absorbed the neutrons and goes to
excited state and return to stable state with the emission of γ- rays.
A(n, γ)A+1, n+Co59 → Co60+ γ
Spallation:- Fragmentations of a nucleus when high energy
neutrons collide with it.
It occurs when energy of the neutrons is greater than 100MeV.
Fission:- When thermal neutrons is capture by the nucleus leaving
it into excited state.
Excited state splits into several lighter fragments.
 Charge Particle
1.Light Charged Particle:- (Electrons)
(a). Excitation and ionization of atoms in absorber material
(atomic effects).
(b). Interaction with electrons in material (collision, scatter)
(c). Deceleration by Coulomb interaction (Bremsstrahlung)

2. Heavy charged particle:- (Z >1)

(a). Excitation and ionization of atoms in absorber material (atomic
effects)
(b). Coulomb interaction with nuclei in material (collision, scatter)
 Charged Particle
Heavy charged particle such as α- particle interact with matter
primarily by coulombic forces between +ve charge of α- particle
and outer electron of the absorber atom.
Interaction with nucleus is also possible but rare. They interact
with many electrons.

Light charged Electron loss its energy at a lower rate and follow
tortuous path in the absorber medium.
 Charged Particle
Delta rays:- After interaction with heavy charged particles,
electrons may have sufficient kinetic energy to create further ions.
These electrons are called as delta rays.
Majority of energy losses of the charged particle is due to delta
rays.
Linear Stopping Power (Sl):- The linear stopping power of the
heavy charged particles in a given absorber is the differential
energy loss of the particle within the medium divided by the
differential path length.
 Charged Particle
The energy loss of the electrons is dominated by excitation and
ionization effects (dE/dx)c and by bremsstrahlung losses (dE/dx)r
(dE/dx)total = (dE/dx)c + (dE/dx)r

Bremsstrahlung:-
Deceleration of an e- around a nucleus causes it to emit
Electromagnetic radiation or bremsstrahlung (G.): ‘breaking
radiation’.
X-Ray Generator Components
X-ray generators modify
incoming voltage and
current to provide an x-
ray tube with the power
needed to produce an x-
ray beam of the desired
peak kilovoltage (kVp)
and current (mA).
 X Ray tube and housing
X-Ray Tube Components
Cathode
The source of electrons in the x-ray
tube is the cathode, which is a helical
filament of tungsten wire surrounded
by a focusing cup

Cathode: Tungsten wire filament.

(Melting point 3410°C)
1. Larger focus(0.3 – 2mm)
2. Small focus(0.1- 1mm)
3. Cathode from broken tube

Electron production:- Thermionic

Emission.
1-2% Thorium added to increase
lifetime and efficiency of electron
emission.
 Anode
Stationary Anode

Rotating Anode
 Anode
The anode is a metal target electrode that is maintained at a positive
potential difference relative to the cathode.
Tungsten is the most widely used anode material because of its high
melting point and high atomic number.
Tungsten
1. High Atomic Number (74)
2. High Thermal Conductivity
3. High Melting Point (3410°C)
An alloy of 10% rhenium and 90% tungsten provides added
resistance to surface damage.
 Transformer
Transformers perform the task of "transforming" an alternating
input voltage into an alternating output voltage, using the principles
of electromagnetic induction.
The high voltage required in X-ray generation is generated by step-
up transformer.

Law of Transformer =
 Autotransformer
A simple autotransformer consists of a single coil of wire wrapped
around an iron core. It has a fixed number of turns, two lines on the
input side and two lines on the output side.

The autotransformer operates

on the principle of self-
induction, whereas the
standard transformer operates
on the principle of mutual
induction.

The law of transformer is also applies to autotransformer.

 Rectification
A rectifier is an electrical apparatus that changes alternating
current into direct current and the process is called as
Rectification.
It is composed of one or more diodes.
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. Diodes are
the electrical version of a valve.

A rectifier is of two types:-

1. Half wave rectifier
2. Full wave rectifier.
 Rectifier
Half Wave Rectifier:-
The simplest rectifier with one diode is called as Half-Wave Rectifier. It
allows half of the input AC cycle to covert into DC output.
 Rectifier
Full Wave Rectifier:-
It uses 2 diodes arrangement with centre tapping transformer. It
converts full AC cycle into output DC.
X-Ray Production