DRYING

• removal of relatively small amount of water or organic liquids

• final processing step before packaging
• as a preservative technique esp. food
• freeze-dried for biological & pharmaceutical materials

2 methods of drying:

1. batch - material put into dryer & drying proceeds for a given period of time
2. continuous - material continously added to dryer & continously removed

3 catagories of drying:

1. Direct contact with heated air at atmospheric pressure

2. Vacuum drying - heated indirectly either by contact with a metal wall or by
radiation
3. freeze drying - water is sublimed from the frozen material
 EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT, X*

• lowest moisture content obtainable at equilibrium

• on dry basis (kg of water/ kg of moisture-free solid)

• depends on structure of solid, temperature

& moisture content of gas
• varies greatly with type of material for
any given % relative humidity

• decreases with increase in temperature

• assumed constant for moderate temperature

ranges
 EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT, X*

• bound water - the minimum moisture a material can carry

- intersection of 100% humidity line in equillibrium water
content vs relative humidity
• Unbound water = excess water held primarily in the voids of the solid

• free moisture content, X - moisture above the equilibrium moisture content

- can be removed by drying

Moisture amount that

X = Xt - X* can be release/free
during drying
where

Xt = total moisture content

X* = equilibrium-moisture content – cannot be predicted

Drying Curve
Drying Curve
 RATE OF DRYING CURVES

• batch drying
• experimental determination
data : WS = weight of dry solid
W = total weight of wet solid vs time t
To obtain as free moisture content X vs time t:
W WS
total moisture content , Xt = WS

free moisture content, X = Xt - X*



Measure sample every

minutes
 RATE OF DRYING CURVES

• batch drying
• experimental determination

To obtain as rate of drying, R :

Get slopes of tangents at different values of t :
W
R s dX
A dt
where
A = exposed
 surface area for drying
 RATE OF DRYING CURVES

dX X (0.35 - 0.325)
   0.07
dt t (1.68 - 2.04)
X = (0.35 + 0.325)/2 = 0.338
R = -21.5 (-0.07) = 1.493

 RATE OF DRYING CURVES

Point AB : Warming up (unsteady) period where the

solid surface conditions come into equilibrium with the
drying air.

Point A’ : hot solid

Point B-C: constant-rate drying period in which surface

of the solid remains saturated with liquid because the
movement of water vapour to the surface equals the
evaporation rate. Thus the drying rate depends on the
rate of heat transfer to the drying surface and
temperature remains constant. Surface temperature 
TW
Point C : critical free moisture content, XC , where
the drying rate starts falling and surface
temperature rises. Insufficient water on surface
 RATE OF DRYING CURVES

Point C-D : first falling-rate drying period which

surface is drying out. Rate of water to surface is less
that rate of evaporation from surface

Point D : surface completely dry

Point D-E : second falling-rate period in which

evaporation is from inside of solid.

Point E : equilibrium moisture content, X*,

where no further drying occur
 CONSTANT RATE OF DRYING PERIOD

To determine the time required for drying from X1 to X2:

1. Experimental drying curve
2. Predicted mass-and-heat coefficients

Experimental drying curve:

Under similar conditions to actual process
1. Drying curve X vs. t
2. Rate-of-drying curve R vs. X

WS
t (X X )
ARC 1 2
where
RC =constant rate of drying
WS = kg of dry solid used
A = exposed surface area for drying
 FALLING-RATE OF DRYING PERIOD
To determine the time required for drying from X1 to X2:

1. Graphical integration

  X1 
X
W 1
dX W
t
A
S
 R A
S

R av
X
2

Most accurate
 FALLING-RATE OF DRYING PERIOD
To determine the time required for drying from X1 to X2:

2. Special cases

a) Rate is linear function of X

WS(X1  X2 ) R1
t ln
A(R1 R2 ) R
2


 FALLING-RATE OF DRYING PERIOD
To determine the time required for drying from X1 to X2:

2. Special cases

b) Rate is a linear function thru’ origin (a straight line from C to E at the

origin)
WSXC RC
t ln
ARC R
2

or

WSXC X C
t ln
ARC X
2

and


X
R  RC
XC
EXAMPLE 9.7-1
 EXAMPLE 9.7-2

Repeat Example 9.7-1, but as an approximation assume a straight line for

the rate R versus X through the origin from point Xc to X = 0 for the
falling-rate period.
Drying Curve
 HUMIDITY & HUMIDITY CHART

p
• Humidity, H - kg of water vapour in 1 kg of dry air H 18.02 A
28.97 PpA
p
• Saturation humidity, HS HS  18.02 AS
28.97 Pp
AS

• Percentage humidity, HP Hp 100 H

HS


• Percentage relative humidity, HR HR 100 ppA ( HR  HP)
AS

where
pA = partial pressure of water
 vapour in air

pAS = saturated partial pressure of water vapour in air

H = humidity of air
HS = humidity of saturated air
• Dew point - temp. at which a mixture of air-water would be saturated
HUMIDITY CHART
 HUMIDITY & HUMIDITY CHART

• Humid heat, cS - amount of heat required to raise the temp. of 1 kg dry air plus
water vapour present by 1K

cS (kJ/kg dry air.K) = 1.005 + 1.88H

• Humid volume, H - total volume of 1 kg dry air plus water vapour present at 1
atm & given gas temperature

H (m3/kg dry air) = (2.83 x 10-3 + 4.56 x10-3H)T

T is in Kelvin
• H –Humidity found from chart

•Total enthalpy of 1 kg of air plus its water vapour, Hy

Hy (kJ/kg dry air) = (1.005 + 1.88H)(ToC- 0) + 2501.4H

 DRY & WET BULB TEMPERATURE
Dry bulb temperature:
the ordinary temperature you
measure with a thermometer
wet cloth/wick
Air flow
Wet-bulb temperature : decreases in
temperature below the dry-bulb
temperature until the rate of heat transfer
from the warmer air to the wick is just
equal to the rate of heat transfer needed to
provide for the evaporation of water from
the wick into the air stream.
 HUMIDITY CHART

Wet bulb temp. =20oC, dry bulb temp. = 30oC,humidity = ?

Humidity
0.0115
 HUMIDITY CHART

Importance of pyschrometric analysis for drying

Air: T2, H2 Air: T1, H1

Assumption: evaporation surface

Humidity
is a liquid film

Constant wet-bulb temperature H2

process H1

T2 T1
 CONSTANT RATE OF DRYING PERIOD
To determine the time required for drying from X1 to X2:
Predicted mass-and-heat coefficients:
Mass transfer of water vapour

Heat transfer furnishes the latent heat of evaporation

Steady-state : rate of mass transfer = rate of heat transfer

Assumptions:

1. Only convective heat transfer to solid surface from hot gas to

surface
2. Mass transfer is from surface to hot gas
 CONSTANT RATE OF DRYING PERIOD

h(T TW )
Rate of drying, RC: RC  q   k yMB(HW  H)
AW W
where
A = exposeddrying area (m2)
T, TW = temp. of gas & surface of solid, respectively (oC)
W = latent heat at TW (J/kg)
MA,MB = molecular weight of water & air, respectively

h = heat-transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)

 CONSTANT RATE OF DRYING PERIOD

Air flowing parallel to the drying surface

(T = 45-150oC, G = 2450 -29300 kg/h.m2,  = 0.61-7.6 m/s)
h = 0.0204G0.8

Air flowing perpendicular to the drying surface

(G = 3900 -19500 kg/h.m2,  = 0.9-4.6 m/s)

h = 1.17G0.37
where G = mass velocity =
To determine the time required for drying from X1 to X2:

WSW (X1 X2 ) WS(X1 X2 )

t 
Ah(T- TW ) Ak y M B (H W - H )


 Example 3
• A granular insoluble solid material wet with water is
being dried in the constant-rate period in a pan 0.61m
x 0.61m and the depth of material is 25.4 mm. The
sides and bottom are insulated. Air flows parallel to
the top drying surface at a velocity of 3.05 m/s and
has a dry bulb temperature of 60oC and a wet bulb
temperature of 29.4oC. The pan contains 11.34 kg of
dry solid having a free moisture content of 0.35 kg
H2O/kg dry solid, and the material is to be dried in the
constant-rate period to 0.22 kg H2O/kg dry solid.

a) Predict the drying rate period and the time in

hours needed.
b) Predict the time needed if the depth of material is
increased to 44.5 mm
 Example 4

• An insoluble wet granular material is dried in

a pan 0.457 x 0.457 m (1.5 x 1.5 ft) and 25.4
mm deep. The material is 25.4 mm deep in
the pan, and the sides and bottom can be
considered to be insulated. Heat transfer is
by convection from an air stream flowing
parallel to the surface at a velocity of 6.1 m/s
(20 ft/s). The air is at 65.6oC (150oF) and has
a humidity of 0.010 kg H2O/kg dry air.
Estimate the rate of drying for the constant-
rate period using SI and English units.
 Industrial Training
OPERATION /BUSINESS
DEVELOPMENT
Contact : TEO G.K
9, JALAN FIRMA 2/1,
Mobile : 0137216218
KAWASAN
Dept. Phone
PERINDUSTRIAN
: 073510795
TEBRAU 1
Email
81100 JOHOR BAHRU
: gtkteo76@pd.jaring.my
JOHOR, MALAYSIA
Office : 07-351 0795
Fax : 07-354 3213
Industrial Training

Zamri Zainol Abidin

Petronas Segamat
Email resume to:
Zamri_zainolabidin@petronas.com.my
Industrial Training

Cesto Technologies Sdn Bhd

Wangsa Maju

Email resume to
ra77master@yahoo.com.my
 Karnival Kerjaya 2014 pada
6-7 Mei 2014

Bersempena dengan program ini, UTM dengan Talent

Corp Malaysia Berhad akan menganjurkan Internship
Market Day pada 6 Mei 2014 di DSI, UTM.

Tujuan program ini diadakan untuk membantu pelajar

UTM yang masih belum mendapat tempat untuk
menjalani latihan industri.