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YOUR CLASS
CARD
FORWARD.
Society, Culture
and
Family Planning
4. EXPECTATION TO
THE SUBJECT
CREATION OF
HOUSE RULES
AND ITS
CONSEQUENCES
GRADING SYSTEM
Conflict Perspective
- A group in society are engaged in a continuous power
struggle for control of scare resources. Conflict may take the
form of politics, litigation, negotiations or family discussions
about financial matter. Simmel, Marx and Weber
contributed significantly to this perspective by focusing on
the inevitability of clashes between social groups. Today,
advocates of the conflict perspective view social
continuous power struggle among competing social group.
Conflict theorists are primarily concerned with the kinds of
changes that can bring about, whereas functionalists look
for stability and consensus.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN
SOCIOLOGY
Society
- It includes the totality of social organizations and the
complex network of interconnected, interdependent,
and overlapping social relationships.
- A large social grouping whose members share the
same geographical territory and are subject to the
political authority and dominant cultural expectations.
- According to Perucci and Knudsen: Society have two
aspects. A) society is external to individual B) The
members perceive society and its experiences as a
constraints upon their lives.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL
GROUPS
Collection of individuals.
Interaction among members.
Mutual awareness.
“We”-feeling.
Group unity and solidarity.
Common interests.
Group norms.
Size of the groups.
Groups are dynamics.
Stability.
SOCIAL GROUP
GEMEINSCHAFT GESSELSCHAFT
- Close communal - Organized impersonal
relationship or community. relationship or society.
- It is a community of - There is division of labour,
intimate, private, and specialization, functional
exclusive living and dependence, and solidarity
familism. or cohesion are achieved.
- They live and work - The members are guided by
together and share a rational will characterized
common language, by forethought and
traditions, and customs deliberation.
which are not questioned.
TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS
IN-GROUP OUT-GROUP
- The individual identifies - It is a group which an
and which gives on her a individual is in
sense of belonging, sufficient contact with
solidarity, camaraderie, as to be aware of its
espirits de corps, and a existence, but he or
protective attitude
she is prone to
towards the other
members. criticize.
- “we are in” - “they are out”
TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS
RACE ETHNICITY
- The classification of humans - The culturally defined
according to physical differences between ethnic
characteristics transmitted at group in the society.
birth to a group of people.
- It involves a sharing of culture
- It is biological concept is and certain culture traits.
determined on the basis of a
group’s blood line.
RACE AND ETHNICITY
Ethnic Group
- It refers to the group with common cultural
backgrounds.
- The theory of “definition of the situation” in ethnic
group relations implies that, what is important is not
the physical characteristics that identify a group but
how such relationship determine the feeling of
belonging to each other.
- The Philippine population is composed of Christian
Malay(91.5%), Muslim Malay (4%), Chinese (1.5%),
and other cultural minorities (3%).
Minority Group RACE AND ETHNICITY
- It refers to the group that is numerically lesser than the rest of the population.
There are in a non-dominant position, whose members possess ethnic,
religious, or linguistic characteristics which distinguish them from the rest of
the population.
- Some features of minority group are:
a. The members suffer various disadvantages at the and of the another
group.
b. They are identified by group characteristics that are socially visible.
c. It is a self-conscious group with a strong sense of “oneness).
CULTURE AND ITS
SOCIETY
CULTURE AND ITS SOCIETY
Culture
- It is that complex whole which includes knowledge belief,
art, law, morals custom and other capabilities and habit
acquired by man as a member of society. (Edward Taylor)
- It is the complex whole that consists of all the ways we think
and do and everything we have as member of society.
(Robert Bierstadt)
- The realm of styles of values of emotional attachments of
intellectual adventures. (MacIver and Page)
Therefore, culture define as the sum total of behaviour traits
which a person, comes to acquire through instruction and
learning.
FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE
Culture is learned.
Culture is transmitted.
Culture is social and collective.
Culture is ideational.
Culture is gratifying.
Culture is adaptive.
Culture is an integrated whole.
Culture is shared.
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
ii. Mores - norms people consider vital to their well being and
most cherished values; they are special customs with moral and
ethical significance, which are strongly held and emphasized.
Kinds of Mores
1. Positive mores/Duty - it refers to the behavior, which must
and ought to be done because they are ethically and
morally good. E.g. Giving assistance to the poor and needy.
2. Negative mores/Taboo - it refers to societal prohibitions on
certain acts which must not be done because they are not
only illegal, but amoral and unethical. E.g. incest, rape,
cannibalism, murder etc
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
Subculture - the smaller group which develop norms, values, beliefs and
special languages which make them distinct from the broader society.
Equal opportunity
Achievement and success
Material comfort
Activity and work
Practically and efficiency
Progress
Science
Democracy and free enterprise
Freedom
Racism and group superiority
KEY VALUES THAT DOMINATE IN
PHILIPPINE WAY OF LIFE
Non-rationalism Rationalism
- States that the people - The belief that one can
have to adapt themselves actively control and
to nature and the forces manipulate his or her
outside themselves. destiny by systematic
planning, studying, and
training.
KEY VALUES THAT DOMINATE IN
PHILIPPINE WAY OF LIFE
Personalism Interpersonalism
- It attach to the major - The tendency to eliminate
importance to personal the influence the friendship
factors which guarantees or kinship in working
intimacy, warmth and situation.
security of kinship, and
friendship in getting things
done.
KEY VALUES THAT DOMINATE IN
PHILIPPINE WAY OF LIFE
Particularism Universalism
- A person concern’s is - A person’s concern is the
centred on subgroups advancement of the
made up of relatives, collective national good.
friends, colleagues,
- Legal rules
associates, religious
affiliates of his/her ethnical
regional group.
- Ethical rules
KEY VALUES THAT DOMINATE IN
PHILIPPINE WAY OF LIFE
Filipino Nationalism
- The advocacy of making ones own nation distinct
and separate from others in the intellectual, social,
cultural, economic, political, and moral matters.
- It is the feeling of oneness among the nationals who
seek to establish the identity and the good of the
nation in these matters.
DEVELOPMENT OF
SELF
Questions:
How does a newly born baby become a human or
social being?
Nature Nurture
- Biological traits transferred - Influence one’s action
from parents to offspring patterns and motivational
through genes in the skills, factual knowledge,
chromosomes of the sex values and tastes.
are composed of biological
- It is the socio-cultural
structures, psychological
activity in the environment.
process, reflexes, urges,
capacity, intelligence, and
other physical traits.
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
Freud’s Theory of Socialization
Stages of Development
1) Oral Stage – from birth to one year old. Eating (sucking) is the major
satisfaction of this stage that gives the baby nourishment and pleasure. Freud
described this stage as one primary narcissism or self-love.
2) Anal Stage – from ages one to three years. The anal zone become the
centre of the child’s sexual interest. The influencing factors at this stage is toilet
training.
3) Phallic Stage – between the ages of three to six years. The greatest source
of pleasure comes from the sex organs. The child feels erotic desires towards
the parents of the opposite sex. (Oedipus Complex and Electra Complex)
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
Stages of Development
Freud’s Theory of Socialization
4) Latency Stage – from ages six to eleven or early adolescent. Their energies
are redirected into concrete, socially acceptable pursuit such as sports,
games, and intellectual. The child possess new composure and self-control.
5) Genital Stage (Puberty) – they focus on the opposite sex, look around for a
potential love-partner, prepare for marriage and adult responsibilities.
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
Symbolic Interactionism
Socialization
- It is a life long process which enables the individual to learn the content
of her/his culture and the many behavioural patterns of the group to
which s/he belongs.
- It is process by which the helpless infant gradually becomes self aware,
knowledgeable person, skilled in the ways of culture into which he or
she is born. (Anthony Giddens)
- It is a learning process of development of habits, attitudes and traits that
differentiate individual from one another. (Anderson and Parker)
PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION
1. Stages of Process of Socialization
Imitation - self-conscious assumption of another’s acts or roles.
2. Suggestion – the process of communicating information which has not
logical or self-evident basis.
3. Identification – the child cannot make a difference between his/her
own organism and the environment.
4. Language - It is the medium of social interaction.
AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION
Family
Family of
Orientation
Family of
Procreation
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Family
B. Extended Family
- It is composed of two or more nuclear families,
economically and socially related to each other.
- The extensions may be through the parent-child
relationship; where the unmarried and married
children lives with their families live with their parents.
- This type of family emphasizes independent
residence, strong allegiance to the members,
romantic love, and sexual attraction.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Family
Based of Structure
A. Conjugal Family
- The spouse and their offspring as of prime
importance and which has a fringe comparatively
unimportant relatives. Marital bond is emphasized.
B. Consanguine Family
- The nucleus of blood relatives as more important than
the spouses. Blood relationships formed during are
emphasized.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Family
Based on Descent
A. Patrilineal
- Descent affiliates a person with a group of relatives
through his or her father.
B. Matrilineal
- Descent affiliates a person with a group of relatives
related through his or her mother.
C. Bilateral
- Descent affiliates a person with a group of relatives
related both to his and her parents.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Family
Based on Residence
A. Patrilocal
- The newly weds are expected to live in the same house
close to the groom’s family and common in rural areas.
- This is consistent with the expectation of society that “a
man must always provide for the needs of his family”.
B. Matrilocal
- The wife brings her husband to her parent’s house. This
is most common when the wife is the only
child/daughter or the last of the offspring to get
married.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Based on Residence
C. Neolocal
Types of Family
- The couple established residence independent and far form their parent’s
residence.
- This is most prevalent in the urban areas and couples are financially
stable.
D. Bilocal
- The couple has the option to live either with the bride’s or groom’s family.
- The couple resorted to this method if they are financially stable.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Based on Authority
A. Patriarchal Family
Types of Family
- It gives the oldest male (husband-male) control over the rest of the
members. This is most dominant in many societies since the biblical times.
- The males speak for the familial group with regard to property
relationship, legal obligations, and criminal offenses.
B. Matriarchal Family
- An extremely rare phenomenon, which is a system where the wife-mother
has the authority and power over husband-father.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Family
C. Egalitarian Family
- The authority is divided more or less between
husband and wife. This is promoted by the bilateral
system of descent.
D. Matricentric Family
- The father commutes to work and his absence gives
the mother a dominant position in the family, although
the father may also share with the mother in decision-
making.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Functions of the Family
Reproduction
Socialization
Status-placement
Functionalist Perspective
Religion provides explanation the unknown and some
measure of certainty in an unknown world.
Religion gives meaning and purpose to certain beliefs
and provides people with a perspective for looking at
the world.
Religion integrates and maintains the fundamental
values form the ultimate values of the Supreme Being
to the subordinate, material, and practical values.
Religion allays the fears and anxieties of an individual
by reassuring them of the care and protection of their
deity
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Functions of Religion
Functionalist Perspective
Religion has an integrative function and is means of
social cohesion or group solidarity.
Religion performs welfare, education and recreation
functions.
Religion serves as a means of social control.
Religion legitimizes the foundation of the society’s
culture and integrates the value system of society.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Functions of Religion
Social-Conflict Perspective
Religion is the “opiate of the people”. It can provide
unity for those with the faith, but it can spur conflict
between opposing religious group. (Karl Marx)
Church
- It is a type of religious organization that is well
integrated into the larger society with well
established rules and doctrines.
- A church generally accepts the norms and values
of the society and frequently regards itself as the
guardian of the established social order.
- It identifies with the state and is integrated with the
social, political and educational functions.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Religious Institutions
Sect
- A highly cohesive group of believers who strictly
adhere to a religious doctrine and reject many
beliefs and practices of the general society and
replace them with beliefs and practices which may
appear strange to the non believer.
Cult
- It is a religious organization often inspired by a
charismatic leader and largely outside a society’s
cultural tradition. People voluntarily follow a leader
who preaches new beliefs and practices.
SOCIAL INSTITUITONS
Sub-concept about Religion
State
- It is organized under a government that exercises
authority over its subjects with the legitimate
monopoly of physical force, to imprison and even
executes members within its jurisdiction. The state
exercises its political authority through governments
at the national, state and local levels.
Government
- It is a complex legal system that has the power and
authority to carry out the functions of the state. The
government consists of the legislature, executive
and judiciary.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Basis of Power in Philippine
Voting – right to suffrage (Art. V)
Politics
Political Counselling – information middlemen in cities were consulted on
political, legal and other technical matters by voters.
Patronage – straight buying and selling of votes operates with a network
of personalized reciprocity.
Moulding of public opinion – the efforts to provide more scientific public
opinion polling are done by professional statistical centres.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Power beyond the Law
Deviant Behaviour
- The behaviour that violates norms.
- It varies in different cultures or in a given culture in a
period of time.
Deviant
- The expression of radical or unusual political or
religious belief.
Deviance
- The function of the pigment of a particular group
who observe the behaviour.
EXPLANATION FOR DEVIANT BEHAVIOUR
Biological
- Being deviant is coming form physical or biological
makeup.
- According to some biologist, said that deviant
behaviour is a result of aberrant genetic traits.
Psychological
- Being deviant is a result of personality disorder or
maladjustment that develops during childhood.
- It can be observe in from aggression against others
or against society because of frustration.
SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO DEVIANCE
Functionalist Perspective
- According to Durkheim and Merton assert that
deviant behaviour is a consequence of anomie or
normlessness which results from the existence of
diverse sets of norms, with none of them closely
binding upon everybody.
Control Theory
- It asserts that deviance is learned. Participation in
subcultures and counter-cultures is part of the
socialization process of being a deviant.
SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO DEVIANCE
Conflict Theory
- The heterogeneous nature of society and the differences in the distribution
of social power lead to a struggle between social classes. The conflict
between the powerful and the weak affect the creation of deviance and
society’s response to it.
Symbolic Interactionism
- As the people interact with a deviant, they acquire the techniques, motives,
drive, and attitudes appropriate to such behaviour. Labelling theory, is also
belong to this perspective explaining on how crime and deviance become
defined and labelled and the effect on a person being so labelled, especially
by official agencies and other persons.
FORMS OF DEVIANT
BEHAVIOUR
Drug abuse
- The use of drugs, lawful or unlawful, which result in
physical, emotional, social, or behavioural
impairment.
Crime
- The violation of a norm codified into law and carries
punishment for it. The result of crime is injury to the
individual and the society.
SOCIAL CHANGES
- SOCIAL CHANGE
The alterations in the patterns and regulations regarding social interaction.
- This is manifested in the rise and fall of groups, communities, or institutional
structures and functions, or changes in the statuses and roles of members in
the family, works setting, church, school, government, leisure, and other
subsystems of the social organizations.
- Its dimensions includes the transformation of culture and social institutions
over time.
- The changes in the society involves the comparisons of the past and present
in the hope for improvement, stability, or security in the future.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL
CHANGE
Smelser’s Value Added Approach –it assess the behaviour involved and
work out some forms of social control.
COMMUNITY
COMMUNITY
Mortality
- The rate of death in population. A population with
many old people will naturally have a higher death
rate than a comparatively young population. It is
also assumed that because women live longer than
men, a population with many women will have
lower death rate.
Migration
- The movement of people for permanent residency. It
includes immigration, movement into an area, while
emigration is movement out of an area. This can be
divided into pull and push factors.
HISTORY
POLITICAL
GEOGRAPHY
SCIENCE
Population
Explosion
Explanation
and
Consequence
s
ANTHROPOLOGY SOCIOLOGY
ECONOMICS
Fig. 3. Paradigm of Population in the Philippines and the Social Sciences Discipline
BASIS OF POPULATION
EXPLOTION
Historical
- One of the most important of Spanish colonization in
the Philippines was the propagation of the Roman
Catholic. Since, the church does not favour birth
control. There is a high rate of population growth.
Sociological
- In rural areas, they believe that all events are
predetermined and inevitable and that the happening
that come their way are the results of fate and destiny.
- The men and women feel ashamed to submit in
artificial methods of family planning.
BASIS OF POPULATION
Economic
EXPLOTION
- In rural areas, the perception of some people that children
serves as their economic assets. They think that a big family
is better than a small one because children can earn a
livelihood for the family.
Anthropological
- It assumed that basis of population explotion is the Filipino
values, belief system, customs and traditions. The extended
family expected that the couple to have a number of
children during the marriage.
One is not surprised to hear remarks like, “bakit wala pa?”, if
the pregnancy does not takes place after marriage. The
husband is jokingly branded to be “mahina” if his first child is
not followed by another one year after.
BASIS OF POPULATION
EXPLOTION
Political science
- It is observed that those whose come from high
income groups, most often, come from educated
parents who have limited the number of their
children. On the other hand, the poor with many
children, by and large, do not have taxable
income.
Geography
- The rate of population growth in the rural areas is
significantly higher than that in the urban. (debatable)
MARRIAGE
Why people marry???
Endogamy
- It dictates that one should marry within one’s clan or
ethnic group.
Exogamy
- The one that marries outside one’s clan or ethnic
group.
Levirate
- The widows marries the brothers or nearest kin of the
deceased husband.
Sororate
- The widower marries the sister or the nearest kin of the
deceased wife.
CONCEPT BEYOND
MONOGAMY
Annulment
- The process which makes the marriage contract null
and void, in which case, the law sees that no
marriage has taken place. The New Family Code
recognizes the annulment of marriage bond where
the parties are free to marry again without fear of
violating any law.
- The grounds for annulment are lack of parental
consent of a minor before the marriage, insanity of
one party, fraud, force, intimidation or undue
influence, impotence of one party, and serious
sexually transmissible disease of the either party.
VOID AND VIODABLE
MARRIAGE
Divorce
Legal separation
- This is a judicial declaration when the separation of
husband and wife merely entitles the spouse to live
separately (in house or in bed), but not dissolving
the marriage.
VOID AND VIODABLE
Grounds for Legal Separation
1. Adultery/Concubinage
MARRIAGE
2. Attempt by one spouse against the life of the other.
3. Repeated physical violence or grossly abusive conduct directed
against petitioner, a common child, or a child of the petitioner.
4. Physical violence or moral pressure to compel the petitioner to
change religious or political affiliation.
5. Attempt of respondent to corrupt or induce the petitioner.
6. Drug addiction or habitual alcoholism of the respondents.
7. Final court judgement sentencing the respondent to imprisonment of
more than 6 years, even if pardoned.
8. Lesbianism or homosexuality of the respondents.
9. Sexual infidelity or perversion.
10. Abandonment of the petitioner by respondent without a justifiable
cause for more than one year.
PARENTHOOD
RIGHTS AND OBLIGATION OF THE PARENTS
Child and Welfare Code of the Philippines (PD No. 603)
Primary Rights of the Parent – the parents shall have the rights to the company
of their children and, in relation to all other persons or institutions dealing with
the child’s development, the primary right and obligation to provide for the
upbringing.
Right under the Civil Code – parent shall continue to exercise the rights
mentioned in the Article 316 to 326 of the Civil Code over the person and
property of the child.
Right to Discipline Child – parents have the right to discipline the child as may
be necessary for the formation of his good character, and may therefor
require from him obedience to just and reasonable rules, suggestions and
admonitions.
1. PARENTAL
To give him RESPONSIBILITIES
affection, companionship and understanding.
2. To extend to him the benefits of moral guidance, self-
discipline and religious instruction.
3. To supervise his activities, including his recreation.
4. To inculcate in him the value of industry, thrift and self-
reliance.
5. To stimulate his interest in civic affairs, teach him duties of
citizenship, and develop his commitment to his country.
6. To advice him properly on any matter affecting his
development and well-being.
7. To provide him with adequate support.
8. To administer his property, according to his best interest.
FAMILY PLANNING
- FAMILY PLANNING
This is a concept of enhancing the quality of life of every member of the
family through the use of family planning methods to regulate the number
of the children.
- It reduces the need for unsafe abortion.
- Some family planning methods help prevents the transmission of HIV and
other sexually transmitted infections.
- It reinforces people’s rights to determine the number and spacing of their
children.
- It allows people to attain their desired number of children and determine
the spacing of pregnancies. It is achieved through use of contraceptive
methods and the treatment of infertility.
BENEFITS OF FAMILY PLANNING
Calendar rhythm
- The use of calculations to determine safe and unsafe
days of the menstrual cycle, based on past cycles.
- This method is recommended for women with regular
menstrual cycles ad who feel themselves capable of
following the requirements of method and for women
who cannot use artificial contraceptive.
Coitus interruptus (Withdrawal)
- The male withdraws his penis from his partner's vagina,
and ejaculates outside the vagina, keeping semen
away from her external genitalia.
Calendar Method
Cervical Mucus
METHODS OF FAMILY
PLANNING
Tubal ligation
- This is don by cutting-off the fallopian tube to block
completely the passage of ovum and prevent it from
meeting the sperm.
Vasectomy
- This requires a simple operation by cutting-off the vas
deference so that the sperm will not entre the semen
that is discharged.
Vasectomy
METHODS OF FAMILY
PLANNING
Pills
METHODS OF FAMILY
PLANNING
Injectable Contraceptive
- This is administered by one-dose injectable
contraceptive containing progesterone and
injected every three months. This is intended for
women 18-40 years old who wish to space or limit
child-bearing. It gives women freedom from
menstruation an the associated blood loss.
however, one advantages of this method may be
vaginal spotting even before the regular menstrual
period.
METHODS OF FAMILY
Implants
PLANNING
- It is a small, flexible rods or capsules placed under the skin of the upper arm;
contains progesterone hormone only. Only the health-care provider must
insert and remove this product. It can be used for 3–5 years depending on
implant. Like injectable irregular vaginal bleeding is common but not
harmful.
Condom
- It is a soft and thin rubber sheath worn on the erect penis before sexual
intercourse to prevent the sperm. It gives protection against the transmission
of sexually transmitted diseases. However, this may cause inconvenience to
users, since they have to interrupt love-making in order to put it on.
Implants
Condom
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
AND ISSUES
DIMENSIONS AND ORIGIN OF
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
Colonial mentality
Dependence of Philippine economy on foreign
capital and investment
Capitalism and exploitation
Cheap labour
Graft and corruption
Overpopulation
Unemployment and underemployment
Low and limited educational attainment and
illiteracy
THEORIES OF POVERTY
Theory of Capitalism
- The continuous exploitation of poverty of the people
to accumulate huge profits. The poor are always
sacrificed the price of technological development.
- This theory proposed by Karl Marx which reveals the
relationship and conflict between the exploiters and
exploiter. These relationships had been the entire
system of economic, social and political
involvement, which has virtually been established to
maintain the power and dominate of the owners
over the workers.
FACES OF POVERTY
Individual Programs
Individual Behaviour Therapy – aims to modify the
behaviour of the delinquent by changing the
environment in which the behaviour occurs.
Social Skills Training
- It focused on micro-skills, such as eye contact and
body postures; macro skills, such as negotiating with
and handling encounters with the police authority;
and institutional behaviour, such as avoiding fights
and other forms of brawls.
PREVENTION OF JUVENILE
DELINQUENCY
Child Prostitution
- This common to some foreign tourists coming from
different countries and want to experience what our
country can offer. The issue of pedophilia surprising
nowadays, since we have always read the “fresh
victim” of prostitutions.
- It assumes that broken homes can make people shy
way from normal adult heterosexual relationship
since children are less threatening and more passive
sex partners.
- I may also inferred that when the child prostitute
grows up, he/she likely to become a pedophile.
Poverty CAUSES OF PROSTITUTIONS
- Being hopeful of a better life, so they sacrifice
everything in exchange of money.
Illegal recruitment
- Sometimes young people from rural areas are the
target of illegal recruitment, a promise of better job
and better life makes them involve in prostitution
without knowing than they were became one.
Lack of education and information
- The promise of a good-paying job, aside from other
benefits like free board and lodging, beautiful dresses
and expensive jewelry become the motivating factors
why they are trapped into the illicit trade.
Why prostitutes stay in their
For a better life until they meet someone who is willing take them out of this
job. job?
1.
- blood transfusions
Infected mother to her child before or during birth.