LECTURER:

Dr William Pote
BSc (Hons), PhD (UZ)
“We either find a way or make one!”
(E-Consult)
 LECTURER’S RULES

RULE # 1:
THE LECTURER IS ALWAYS RIGHT

RULE # 2:
IN THE UNLIKELY EVENT THAT THE LECTURER IS WRONG,

PLEASE REFER TO RULE # 1 IMMEDIATELY

 HOW WE ARE GOING TO LEARN
- Lectures: The lecturer presents information

- Tutorials: More interactive learning sessions where the students participate

- Presentations: Student centred with the lecturer being a moderator

- Practicals: The student shall do set activities as part of the learning process

- Tests and Quizzes: The lecturer presents information

- Any other: As may be decided from time to time

LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION
Aims of the Topic:

The aim of this topic is to give an overview of the study of Physiology

Objectives:

By the end of the topic the student should be able to explain why the study of Physiology is
important

Topic Content:

• Plan of the human body

• Body compartments
• Homeostasis and feedback mechanisms
 WHAT IS PHYSIOLOGY?

- The science that is concerned with the function of the living organism and
its parts, and of the physical and chemical processes involved.

- The study of disordered body function (i.e. disease) is called

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

- The basis for clinical medicine

Some important moments:

- 17th century: William Harvey first describes the closed circulation

- 19th century: Claude Bernard formulates the modern version of homeostasis

– the constancy of the internal milieu

- 19th century: Johannes Muller formulates the ‘law of specific nerve energy’

- In general, a slow development of our modern view of the function of the

body
 BODY ORGANISATION

- Cells: the basic structural and functional unit (~ 100 trillion)

- Tissues: (e.g. muscles, epithelial, nervous )

- Organs: (e.g. kidney, heart, liver, pancreas)

- Organ systems: (e.g. cardiovascular, urinary)

Plan of Human Body
- Interior of body separated from external environment by a layer of
epithelial tissue

- Lumen of respiratory system, gastrointestinal system, and urinary system

are part of external environment

The Body’s External Environment

 Internal environment = fluid surrounding cells

The Body’s Internal Environment

- Between blood and external environment
 Lungs

 Gastrointestinal tract
 Kidneys

Exchange Between External and Internal

Environment
 - Internal environment = fluid surrounding cells = extracellular fluid (ECF)
- 70 kg man
Total body water = 42 liters

- Internal environment = fluid surrounding cells = extracellular fluid (ECF)

- 70 kg man
Total body water = 42 liters
• 28 liters intracellular fluid (ICF)
• 14 liters extracellular fluid (ECF)
- 3 liters plasma
- 11 liters interstitial fluid (ISF)

Body Fluid Compartments

Body Fluid Compartments
 HOMEOSTASIS

- The body is a collection of body systems working together to

maintain life.

- The body strives to maintain an internal balance

- Homeostasis
- The maintenance of a stable internal environment.

- 37 degrees C, pH 7.3-7.4

- Other factors that are regulated?

- The internal environment is made up of the extra cellular fluid or ECF

- Cells that are isolated from the external environment can still
exchange materials with the ECF
- Network of body components that operate to maintain a given factor in the
internal environment relatively constant around an optimal level

- Local (intrinsic) controls

- Inherent, or built into a particular organ

- Systemic (extrinsic) controls

- Outside of an organ

- Involves neural and endocrine regulation

- Coordinates various organs and systems

Homeostatic Control Systems

- Maintain homeostasis by detecting a deviation from a set point and
act to restore that set point

- Four components of a negative feedback loop

- Controlled variable

- Sensor

- Control center

- Effector

Negative Feedback Loops

Negative Feedback Loop
- Positive feedback loops

- Continues increasing an change

- Controlled variable moves in one direction

- e.g. Uterine contractions

- Feed forward mechanisms

- Anticipate change and responds to that change before it

happens e.g. anticipatory regulation of heartbeat in advance

of actual physical exertion

Other Regulatory Mechanisms

 Positive feedback loops cause a
rapid change in a variable.

Positive Feedback Loop

- Negative feedback: promotes stability

- Feed-forward: anticipates change

- Positive feedback: promotes a change in one direction, often leading to

instability, disease, and sometimes death.
 THANK YOU!

ANY QUESTIONS??
 LECTURE 2:
THE CELL AND ITS ORGANELLES
Aims of the Lecture:
The aim of this lecture is to give an overview of the cell and its organelles

Objectives:
By the end of the lecture the student should be able to describe the basic
unit of the organism and the functions of the organelles that make up the
cell

Lecture Content:

• Cell Structure
• Cell organelles and their functions
 CELLS

- Basic living units

- Smallest subdivision able to carry out all life processes

- Contain organelles

- Structures that have specific functions

- Specialized for specific physiological roles

Tissues

- Groups of cells of similar structure

- Interaction among cells leads to functions single cells cannot

effectively do alone
Types of Tissues

- Epithelial tissues
- Form body surfaces
- Barriers
- Secretion
- Absorption
- Some movement (cilia)
Types of Tissues

- Connective Tissues
- Very diverse
- Extracellular matrix
- Incorporate large amounts of extracellular material in
tissue structure and function
- Connection, Structure, and Protection
Types of Tissues
- Muscle Tissue
- Contraction
- Generates Tension, Movement and Heat

- Nerve tissue
- High speed communication
- Control/Integration
Organs
- structures consisting of at least two tissue types
- perform a specific function related to the whole body

Organ Systems

- groups of organs performing related functions

- Enable basic functions needed to maintain overall homeostasis
Major Organ Systems
- Nervous System
- Communication and control
- Endocrine System
- Communication and control
- Integumentary System
- Barrier between interior of body and exterior,
thermoregulation
- Respiratory System
- Gas exchange, pH balance
- Urinary System
- Waste removal, water and ion balance
Major Organ Systems
- Digestive System
- Obtain raw materials from exterior
- Immune System
- Protect body from foreign substances, other organisms and
cancer cells
- Musculoskeletal System
- Movement, structure, support, protection, heat generation
- Circulatory System
- Transportation of most materials throughout body
- Reproductive System
- Perpetuation of the species
Cell Theory

- Cells were discovered in 1665 by Robert Hooke.

- Early studies of cells were conducted by

- Mathias Schleiden (1838)
- Theodor Schwann (1839)

- Schleiden and Schwann proposed the Cell Theory.

- All living things are made up of 1 or more cells.

- Cells are the smallest working units of all living things.

- All cells come from preexisting cells through cell division.

- All cells today represent a continuous line of descent from the

first living cells.
Cell size is limited.

-As cell size increases, it takes longer for material to diffuse

from the cell membrane to the interior of the cell.

Surface area-to-volume ratio:

as a cell increases in size, the volume increases 10x faster than

the surface area
- Cells need sufficient surface area to allow adequate transport of
nutrients in and wastes out.

- As cell volume increases, so does the need for the transporting

of nutrients and wastes.

- However, as cell volume increases the surface area of the cell

does not expand as quickly.

- If the cell’s volume gets too large it cannot transport enough

wastes out or nutrients in.

- Thus, surface area limits cell volume/size.

- Strategies for increasing surface area, so cell can be larger:

- “Frilly” edged…….

- Long and narrow…..

- Round cells will always be small.

All cells have certain structures in common.

1. genetic material – in a nucleoid or nucleus

2. cytoplasm – a semifluid matrix

3. plasma membrane – a phospholipid bilayer

Microscopes are required to visualize cells.

Light microscopes can resolve structures that are 200nm

apart.

Electron microscopes can resolve structures that are

0.2nm apart.
Observing Cells

- Light microscope
- Can observe living cells in true color
- Magnification of up to ~1000x
- Resolution ~ 0.2 microns – 0.5 microns
- Electron Microscopes
- Images are black and white – may be colorized
- Magnifcation up to ~100,000

- Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

- 2-D image
- Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
- 3-D image
SEM

TEM
Cell Structure
- All Cells have:
- an outermost plasma membrane
- genetic material in the form of DNA
- cytoplasm with ribosomes

Two Types of Cells

- Prokaryotic
- Eukaryotic
 Prokaryotic

- Do not have structures

surrounded by membranes

- Few internal structures

- One-celled organisms, Bacteria

Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus.

-genetic material is present in the nucleoid
Prokaryotic cells possess

-genetic material in the nucleoid

-cytoplasm

-plasma membrane

-cell wall

-ribosomes

-no membrane-bound organelles

Prokaryotic cell walls

-protect the cell and maintain cell shape

Bacterial cell walls

-may be composed of peptidoglycan

-may be Gram positive or Gram negative

Flagella
-present in some prokaryotic cells
-used for locomotion
-rotary motion propels the cell
Eukaryotic

- Contain organelles surrounded by membranes

- Most living organisms
Animal Plant
Eukaryotic cells

-possess a membrane-bound nucleus

-are more complex than prokaryotic cells

-compartmentalize many cellular functions within

organelles and the endomembrane system

-possess a cytoskeleton for support and to maintain

cellular structure
Plant Cell
“Typical” Animal Cell
- Structures in all eukaryotic cells

- Nucleus

- Ribosomes

- Endomembrane System

- Endoplasmic reticulum – smooth and rough

- Golgi apparatus

- Vesicles

- Mitochondria

- Cytoskeleton
 NUCLEUS
CYTOSKELETON

RIBOSOMES

MITOCHONDRION ROUGH ER

CYTOPLASM SMOOTH ER

CENTRIOLES

GOLGI BODY

PLASMA LYSOSOME
MEMBRANE VESICLE
• Actin

– Smallest cytoskeletal filament (aka microfilament)

– Fiber composed of actin molecules

– Associated with myosin for

muscle contraction

• Contains binding sites

for myosin
• Intermediate Filaments

– Provide structure for

• Type I & II Intermediate filaments

– Hair/nails – keratin fibers

• Type III Intermediate filaments

– Desmin

» Involved in structural support of sarcomeres

» Connects z discs to subsarcolemmal cytoskeleton!

» Involved in migration of cells during embryogenesis

– Vimentin

» Support cell membranes

» Cytoskeltal component that anchors some organelles

– Peripherins & GFAP’s (glial fibrillary acidic protein)

» Intermediate filaments in nerves and glial cells

• Intermediate filaments cont…

– Type IV Intermediate filaments

• Filament group that has types in neural tissue as

well as muscle tissue

– Type V Intermediate filaments

• These are nuclear filaments, providing support

for the nuclear membrane

– Type VI Intermediate filaments

• Aids in growth of axons

• Microtubles

– Assembled from monomers of tubulin ( & )

• ( & ) monomers combine to form dimers

• these assemble to create protofilaments

(single tubes) which then assemble into
the larger structures of

– Centrioles

» Direct microtubule formation during the M

phase of the cell cycle

» Form basal bodies for flagella and cilia

- flagella and cilia – provide motility
- Using dyenin “motors”
 THANK YOU!

ANY QUESTIONS??
 LECTURE 3:
MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES
Aims of the Topic:

The aim of this topic is to give an overview of the membrane bound

organelles

Objectives:

By the end of the topic the student should be able to describe the
basic structures of membrane bound organelles

Topic Content:

• Cell organelles
– Provide additional specific functionality to cells

• Protein production

• Lipid, phospholipid, steroid manufacture

• ATP generation

• Defense/Protection

• Storage
Nucleus

- Directs cell activities

- Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane

- Contains genetic material - DNA

- Structure

- Nuclear envelope

- Two Phospholipid bilayers with protein lined pores

- Each pore is a ring of 8 proteins with an opening in the

center of the ring

- Nucleoplasm – fluid of the nucleus

Nuclear pore bilayer facing cytoplasm Nuclear envelope

bilayer facing
nucleoplasm
- DNA is arranged in chromosomes

- Chromosome – fiber of DNA with proteins attached

- Chromatin – all of the cell’s DNA and the associated

proteins

- Structure, continued

- Nucleolus

- Area of condensed DNA

- Where ribosomal subunits are made

- Subunits exit the nucleus via nuclear pores

Mitochondria
- Structure:

- ~1-5 microns

- Two membranes

- Outer membrane

- Inner membrane - Highly folded

- Folds called cristae

- Intermembrane space (or outer compartment)

- Matrix

- DNA and ribosomes in matrix

-surrounded by 2 membranes

-smooth outer membrane

-folded inner membrane with layers called cristae

-matrix is within the inner membrane

-intermembrane space is located between the two membranes

-contain their own DNA

- organelles present in all types of eukaryotic cells

- contain oxidative metabolism enzymes for transferring the

energy within macromolecules to ATP

- found in all types of eukaryotic cells

- Function – synthesis of ATP

- 3 major pathways involved in ATP production

- Glycolysis - cytoplasm

- Krebs Cycle - matrix

- Electron transport system (ETS) - intermembrane space

Endomembrane System

- Series of organelles responsible for:

- Modifying protein chains into their final form

- Synthesizing of lipids

- Packaging of fully modified proteins and lipids into vesicles for

export or use in the cell

- And more that we will not cover!

Endomembrane system

-a series of membranes throughout the cytoplasm

-divides cell into compartments where different

cellular functions occur

1. endoplasmic reticulum

2. Golgi apparatus

3. lysosomes
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
- Continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear
envelope
- Two forms - smooth and rough
- Transport vesicles
- Golgi apparatus
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

- The ER is continuous with the outer membrane of

the nuclear envelope

- There are 2 types of ER:

- Rough ER – has ribosomes attached
- Smooth ER – no ribosomes attached
- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
- Network of flattened membrane sacs create a
“maze”
- RER contains enzymes that recognize and
modify proteins
- Ribosomes are attached to the outside of the RER
and make it appear rough

- Function RER
- Proteins are modified as they move through the
RER
- Once modified, the proteins are packaged in
transport vesicles for transport to the Golgi body
- Smooth ER (SER)
- Tubular membrane structure
- Continuous with RER
- No ribosomes attached

- Function SER
- Lipids are made inside the SER
- fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols..
- Lipids are packaged in transport vesicles and sent to
the Golgi
Vacuoles
-membrane-bound structures with various functions depending
on the cell type

There are different types of vacuoles:

-central vacuole in plant cells
-contractile vacuole of some protists
-vacuoles for storage

A protist is any eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant or

fungus. The protists do not form a natural group, or clade, but are
often grouped together for convenience, like algae or
invertebrates. They are usually microscopic and unicellular.
Golgi apparatus

-flattened stacks of interconnected membranes

-packaging and distribution of materials to different parts of the

cell

-synthesis of cell wall components

- Golgi Apparatus

- Stack of flattened membrane sacs

- Function Golgi apparatus

- Completes the processing substances received from

the ER

- Sorts, tags and packages fully processed proteins and

lipids in vesicles
- Golgi apparatus receives transport vesicles from the ER
on one side of the organelle

- Vesicle binds to the first layer of the Golgi and its

contents enter the Golgi

- The proteins and lipids are modified as they pass

through layers of the Golgi
- Molecular tags are added to the fully modified
substances
- These tags allow the substances to be sorted and
packaged appropriately.
- Tags also indicate where the substance is to be
shipped.
- Transport Vesicles

- Vesicle = small membrane bound sac

- Transport modified proteins and lipids from the ER to the Golgi

apparatus (and from Golgi to final destination)
- Putting it all together

- DNA directs RNA synthesis  RNA exits nucleus through a

nuclear pore  ribosome  protein is made  proteins
with proper code enter RER  proteins are modified in RER
and lipids are made in SER  vesicles containing the
proteins and lipids bud off from the ER
ER vesicles merge with Golgi body  proteins and lipids enter
Golgi  each is fully modified as it passes through layers of
Golgi  modified products are tagged, sorted and bud off in
Golgi vesicles  …

 Golgi vesicles either merge with the plasma membrane and

release their contents OR remain in the cell and serve a
purpose
- Vesicles - small membrane bound sacs

- Examples

- Golgi and ER transport vesicles

- Peroxisome

- Where fatty acids are metabolized

- Where hydrogen peroxide is detoxified

- Lysosome

- contains digestive enzymes

- Digests unwanted cell parts and other wastes

Lysosomes

-membrane bound vesicles containing digestive enzymes to break

down macromolecules

-destroy cells or foreign matter that the cell has engulfed by

phagocytosis
- The lysosome is an example of an organelle made at the Golgi
apparatus.

- Golgi packages digestive enzymes in a vesicle. The vesicle

remains in the cell and:

- Digests unwanted or damaged cell parts

- Merges with food vacuoles and digest the contents

- Tay-Sachs disease occurs when the lysosome is missing the enzyme
needed to digest a lipid found in nerve cells.

- As a result the lipid accumulates and nerve cells are damaged as

the lysosome swells with undigested lipid.
Microbodies

-membrane bound vesicles

-contain enzymes

-not part of the endomembrane system

-glyoxysomes in plants contain enzymes for converting fats to

carbohydrates

-peroxisomes contain oxidative enzymes and catalase

 THANK YOU!

ANY QUESTIONS??
LECTURE 3: BIOMEMBRANES
Aims of the Topic:

The aim of this topic is to give an overview of biomembranes

Objectives:

By the end of the topic the student should be able to describe the basic structure of a lipid
bilayer membrane

Topic Content:

• Biomembranes
Cell compartmentalization is achieved
by the use of membranes, which are
composed of phospholipid bilayers.
Membranes make life on Earth possible,
but they also present a great problem,
as they impose barriers to diffusion
and intracellular transport
Biological membranes- (e.g. the plasma membrane)-

1. fluidity
3. function

The membrane encapsulates

cellular components and
maintains an equal solute
Outside concentration between the
35-50 Å inside and the outside of
the cell.
Inside A biological membranes’
main function is to
segregate chemicals.

Membranes impose barriers to

diffusion

2. morphology
Biological activities of biological membranes

- Flexibility- permits shape changes that accompany cell growth

and movement

- Ability to break and reseal- two membranes can fuse

(exocytosis); a single membrane-enclosed compartment can
undergo fission to yield two sealed compartments (endocytosis or
cell division)

- Selectively permeable- retain certain compounds and ions within

cells or specific cellular compartments, while excluding others.
General function of biological membranes
as semi permeable barriers
Membranes function as selective chemical barriers-

Membrane permeability
- The membrane as a physical barrier
- Formed by the tail to tail arrangement of the phospholipid molecules
- Self assembles into

liposomes
bi-layer membranes

miceles
- How does a barrier become a regulator?
- By being having a polar surface
- By specialized membrane components

hydrophillic heads

hydrophobic tails

hydrophillic heads
Intracellular membranes serve as physical barriers that allow compartmentalization-
Membranes everywhere…
The fluid mosaic model of membrane composition &
Topology of membrane associated proteins
Biomembrane composition (a mosaic)-
Proteins are embedded on membranes via hydrophobic surfaces-
Hydrophobic tails Transmembrane domains Structure of an alpha helix
usually 20 amino acids long

Glycolipid anchor

Fatty acid
anchor
All Biological Membranes Share Some
Fundamental Properties
Fluid mosaic model for membrane structure

106
Certain Integral Proteins Mediate Cell-Cell
Interactions and Adhesion
Four examples of integral protein types that function
in cell-cell interactions.
Integrins are proteins that function mechanically, by attaching
the cell cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix (ECM), and
biochemically, by sensing whether adhesion has occurred.
The integrin family of proteins consists of alpha and beta
subtypes, which form transmembrane heterodimers.

Cadherins (named for "calcium-dependent adhesion") are a

class of type-1 transmembrane proteins. They play important
roles in cell adhesion, forming adherens junctions to bind cells
within tissues together.
Neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), also called CD56, is a
homophilic binding glycoprotein expressed on the surface
of neurons, glia, skeletal muscle and natural killer cells. NCAM has
been implicated as having a role in cell–cell adhesion, neurite
outgrowth, synaptic plasticity, and learning and memory

The selectins (cluster of differentiation 62 or CD62) are a family of

cell adhesion molecules (or CAMs). Allselectins are single-chain
transmembrane glycoproteins that share similar properties to C-type
lectins due to a related amino terminus and calcium-dependent
binding.
Membrane Fusion Is Central to Many
Biological Processes

Specific fusion of two membranes requires that:

(1) they recognize each other
(2) their surfaces become closely apposed
(3) their bilayer structures become locally disrupted
(4) their bilayer fused to form a single continuous
bilayer
(5) triggered at the appropriate time or by a specific
signal
Cell to Cell Junctions

- The formation of tissues requires

- Ability to attach cells to neighboring cells

- Very important in epithelial cells & muscle cells

- Production of extracellular materials

- Very important in connective tissues

- Communication between cells

- Cell migration during development and repair

There are four main types of cell-cell junctions:

Three are different types of connecting junctions, that bind the cells
together.

- occluding junctions (zonula occludens or tight junctions)

- adhering junctions (zonula adherens)

- desmosomes (macula adherens). There are also 'hemidesmosomes'

that lie on the basal membrane, to help stick the cells to the
underlying basal lamina.
- Gap junctions. These are communicating junctions. (also known as
nexus, septate junction)

These types of cell junctions are found between epithelial cells, but
can also between other types of cells.
- Junctions between cells

- Zonula occludens

- Zonula adherens

- Macula adherens

- Gap junctions

- Synapses

- Junctions between cells and the extracellular material

- Hemidesmosomes

- Focal adhesions
Tight Junctions

- Why all this complexity in tight junctions?

- Prevents integral protein migration
- Maintains polarity of cells that utilize them
- Prevents passage of substance between cell membranes
- zonula adherens & macula adherens

- Function in providing strong attachments between

adjacent lateral membranes

- Difference is in continuity

- Zonula (zone) is around the apical region of

tightly packed cells (epithelial)

- Macula (spot) occurs in spots on the lateral

membranes of adjacent cells
- Focal Adhesions & Hemidesmosomes

- Attach to underlying extracellular matrix

- Focal Adhesions

- Transmembrane protein integrin interacts with fibers such as

collagen to anchor the membrane

- Cytoplasmic fibers (actin) interact with the integrin to provide

intracellular stability
- Hemidesmosomes

- Attach epithelials to underlying basement membrane

- Similar to “regular” desmosomes, but only ½ and use integrins

instead of cadherins
- Gap Junction Structure

- Transmembrane proteins called

connexons form “channels”
between adjacent cells

- Function

- Communication by allowing ions

to flow from cell to cell very
quickly

- Form electrical synapses in

neural tissue
Synapses

- Specialized junctions between neurons and

- Other neurons

- Muscle (neuromuscular junction)

- Glands (neuroglandular junction)

- Specialized for

- Communication via neurotransmitters!

- More on these later…

 THANK YOU!

ANY QUESTIONS??
LECTURE 4: MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
Aims of the Topic:

The aim of this topic is to give an overview of membrane transport

Objectives:

By the end of the topic the student should be able to describe the basic forms of
membrane transport

Topic Content:

• Membrane transport
Fusion during neurotransmitter release at a synapse
Solute Transport across Membranes

127
128
Passive Transport Is
Facilitated by
Membrane Proteins

Energy changes
accompanying passage
of a hydrophilic solute
through the lipid bilayer of
a biological membrane

130
Transporters Can Be Grouped into
Superfamilies Based on Their Structures

131
Transporters Can Be Grouped into
Superfamilies Based on Their Structures

132
Transporters Can Be Grouped into
Superfamilies Based on Their Structures
Classification of transporters
The Glucose Transporter of Erythrocytes
Mediates Passive Transport
Proposed structure of GLUT1
Model of glucose transport into
erythrocytes by GLUT1
Regulation by insulin of glucose
transport by GLUT4 into a myocyte
The Chloride-Bicarbonate Exchanger Catalyzes
Electrochemical Cotransport of Anions across the
Plasma Membrane
Three general classes of transport systems
Active Transport Results in Solute Movement against
a Concentration or Electrochemical Gradient
P-Type ATPases Undergo Phosphorylation during Catalytic
Cycles- Na+K+ ATPase
Postulated mechanism
of Na+ and K+ transport
by the Na+K+ ATPase
Glucose transport in intestinal epithelial cells
The Neuronal Na+ Channel Is a Voltage-Gated
Ion Channel
Voltage-gated Na+ channel of neurons
Voltage-gated Na+
channel of neurons-

The voltage-sensing
mechanism involves
movement of helix 4
perpendicular to the
plane of the membrane
in response to a
change in potential
The Acetylcholine Receptor Is a Ligand-Gated Ion
Channel
Structure of the acetylcholine receptor ion channel
Top view of a cross section through the center of M2
helices showing five Leu side chains protruding into
the channel, constricting it to a diameter too small to
allow passage of ions
 THANK YOU!

ANY QUESTIONS??