5.

3 Maxwell’s Equations:
Magnetostatics

H
H
E
H

N
+

I - I
S

(a) Electric dipole (b) Magnetic dipole (c) B

(b) Magnetic dipole (c) Bar magnet

Figure 5-13
Compare electric & magnetic dipoles,
and recall Gauss’ Law:

ò D × ds = Q ò B × ds = 0H
Gauss’ Law
for magnetism
s s
EH
H

N
+

- I
I S

(a) Electric dipole (b) Magnetic dipole (c) B

(b) Magnetic dipole (c) Bar magnet
Net flux = net charge enclosed
Net flux = ?
Figure 5-13  ZERO: every field line enters & exits
 The result of Maxwell’s other
electrostatic equation:
Ñ´ H = J
Integrate over a surface S:

ò Ñ ´ H × ds = ò J × ds
s s
…and apply Stokes’ Theorem to LHS, integrate RHS:
THIS is the “easier” way
to find magnetic field, in
Contour direction cases with symmetry
and current direction
follow Right Hand Ampere’s Law (akin to Gauss’ Law)
Rule (thumb = I;
fingers = C)
(examples)
ò D × ds = Q
s
 5.4 Vector Magnetic Potential
Recall for electrostatic fields:

Ñ´E = 0 and the vector ID: Ñ ´ ( -ÑV ) = 0

Led to electric potential: E = -ÑV

Likewise, in magnetics we have:

Ñ× B = 0 and the vector ID: ( )
Ñ× Ñ ´ A = 0

Leads to vector magnetic potential: B = Ñ´ A

 Vector Magnetic Potential
Like electric potential, “A” can be easier to calculate. Here’s how:
Ñ´B
Ñ´ H = J = (Maxwell’s equation)

m
(
Ñ ´ Ñ ´ A = mJ ) …next expand “double-curl”

( )
Ñ Ñ× A - Ñ A = m J 2
(via vector identity; see text)

Just as V can have an arbitrary constant, so can the divergence of “A.” Choose it to be zero.

-Ñ A = m J
2
Ñ A = -mJ
2
 Vector Magnetic Potential (ctd.)
r
Ñ A = - m J … you’ve seen an equation like this before: Ñ V = -
2 2

And since:
e 0
1 rv '
We can likewise say that:
V= ò
4pe v R
dv
m J '
A= ò
4p v R
dv
y
𝐑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝐀

Also: x
µ 𝐼
𝐴Ԧ = න 𝑑Ԧ𝐥 𝐑 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
4𝜋 𝑙 𝑅
Again, note:
𝐑 = 𝐑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 𝐑 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
 Two aspects of the vector potential:
1. Magnetic flux: F = ò B × ds
s

F = ò (Ñ ´ A)× ds = ò A × dl
s c

The closed-path integral of the vector magnetic potential A

equals the total magnetic flux passing through the area
enclosed by the path.
 Two aspects of the vector potential:
(ctd.)
m J '
2.
m I
A= ò
4p v R
dv A= ò
4p R
dl

So:
mI æ dl ö
B = Ñ´ A B=
4p ò Ñ´ç ÷
è Rø
 Two aspects of the vector potential:
(ctd.)
mI æ dl ö
B=
4p ò Ñ´ç ÷
è Rø
Now, using the vector identity:
 
  f G  f  G  f  G

m0 I é 1 æ 1ö ù
B= ò
4p ë Rê Ñ ´ dl + ç Ñ ÷ ´ dl ú
è Rø û
æ 1ö 1
It can be shown (see spherical coordinates): Ñ ç ÷ = - R̂ 2 (Plus curl of dl  0)
è Rø R
m Idl ´ R̂
Thus leaving: B=
4p ò R2
Biot-Savart Law!
Consider the magnetic (H-field) lines inside
and outside a single thick wire.
* What would A look like?
The vector potential A in the cross-section
of a wire with uniform current distribution.
m J ' m I
A= ò
4p v R
dv (same direction as J) A= ò
4p R
dl
 m I Vector potential: wire from –L to +L along z-axis,
A= ò
4p R
dl
find A at a point on a perpendicular plane passing
through the wire’s midpoint, distance r from wire.

𝐿
Az 𝐴Ԧ =
𝜇
න
𝐼ො𝐳
𝑑𝑧 = 𝐳ො
4𝜋 2
𝑟 +𝑧 2
−𝐿
2.0

1.5
I

*P 1.0

2 4 6 8 10
r

𝑑𝑙Ԧ

Plotted from r = 0 to 10*L

 Az 2.0 Vector potential: wire from –L to +L along z-
axis, at point on midpoint plane.
1.5

1.0

(to Mathematica)
I 2 4 6 8 10

Plotted from r =This

0 tois10*L
B(r) from wire (-L to +L long)

This is B(r) from infinite wire 

 Potential & field for a loop of current,
for a point in the plane of the loop.

(Loop radius = 1)
Bz
Aϕ
4

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

 5.5 Magnetic Properties of Materials
• A magnetic field (H; from a current) interacts with the
magnetic dipole moments of the atoms in a material
• It produces a magnetization M:

H=0 H

The total magnetic flux density (B) depends on the fields

from BOTH currents (H) and from materials (M)
= 𝜇0 1 + 𝜒𝑚 𝐇 = 𝜇𝐇
http://mriquestions.com/
 Diamagnetic: Paramagnetic & Ferromagnetic:
M opposes H M aligned with H

µr ≈ 1 for all materials EXCEPT for ferromagnetic…

when it gets very large
Ulaby, Table B-3
µ = µrµ0
µ0 = 4π x 10-7 H/m

• Saturation prevents
us from getting
“kiloTesla” fields!
• i.e., for Ni,
µ0Mmax = 0.64 T
• Typical materials:
0.8 – 2 T max
Magnetic Hysteresis