Digestive

System
2 main groups
• Alimentary canal – digests food (breaks it down into smaller
fragments) and absorbs the digested fragments through its lining into
the blood

• Accessory digestive organs – assist the process of digestive

breakdown in various ways
Organs of the Alimentary
Canal
• Gastrointestinal tract – is a
continuous, coiled, hollow, muscular tube
that winds through the ventral body
cavity and is open in both ends
Mouth
Food enters the digestive tract through the mouth, or
oral cavity, a mucous membrane-lined cavity
The lips (labia) – protects its anterior opening
Cheeks – form its lateral walls
Hard palate – forms its anterior roof
Soft palate – forms its posterior roof
Uvula – is a fleshy fingerlike projection of the soft
palate, which extends downward from its posterior edge
Vestibule – space between the lips and cheeks externally
and the teeth and gums internally
Oral cavity proper – the area contained by teeth
Muscular tongue – occupies the floor of the mouth
• Hyoid bone
• Styloid processes of the skull
Frenulum – fold of mucous membrane, secures the
tongue to the floor of the mouth and limits its posterior
movements; “tongue-tied”
Pharynx
• Common organ for digestive and respiratory system
• Subdivided:
• Nasopharynx – part of the respiratory passageway
• Oropharynx – posterior of the oral cavity
• Laryngopharynx - continuous with the esophagus
below
• 2 skeletal muscle layers:
1. cells of the inner layer run longitudinally
2. outer layer (constrictor muscles) run around the wall in
a circular fashion

Peristalsis
Esophagus
Gullet - runs from the pharynx through the diaphragm to
the stomach. About 25cm (10 inches) long, it is
essentially a passageway that conducts food (by
peristalsis) to the stomach

 4 basic tissue layers/tunics

1. Mucosa – innermost layer, a moist membrane that
lines the cavity, or lumen, of the organ.
2. Submucosa – is found just beneath the mucosa. It is
a soft connective tissue layer containing blood
vessels, nerve endings, lymph nodules, and
lymphatic vessels.
3. Muscularis externa – is a muscle layer typically
made up of an inner circular layer and outer
longitudinal layer of smooth muscle cells.
4. Serosa – is the outermost layer of the wall
Esophagus
Cont…

Serosa is the outermost layer of the wall. It consists

of a single layer of flat serous fluid producing cells,
the visceral peritoneum. The visceral peritoneum
is continuous with the slick, slippery parietal
peritoneum, which lines the abdominopelvic cavity
by way of a membrane extension, the mesentery.

2 nerve plexuses:
1. Submucosal nerve plexus
2. Myenteric nerve plexus

- these network of nerve fibers are part of the

autonomic nervous system. They help regulate the
mobility and secretory activity of the GI tract
organs
Stomach
- the C-shaped stomach is on the left side of the
abdominal cavity, nearly hidden by the liver and
diaphragm
- Temporary storage; site for food breakdown

Regions:
• Cardiac regions – surrounds the cardioesophageal
sphincter, through which food enters the stomach
from the esophagus
• Fundus – is the expanded part of the stomach lateral
to the cardiac region
• Body – is the midportion
• Pylorus – funnel-shaped, which is the terminal part
of the stomach. The pylorus is continuous with the
small intestine through the pyloric sphincter/valve
- 25cm (10 inches) long
- Full: 4 liters (1 gallon)
- Empty: it collapses inward on itself, and its mucosa
is thrown into large folds called rugae
- Greater curvature is the convex lateral surface of
the stomach
- Lesser curvature concave medial surface
Stomach
- Lesser omentum, a double layer of peritoneum,
extends from the liver to the lesser curvature
- Greater omentum, another extension of the
peritoneum, drapes downward and covers the
abdominal organs like a lacy apron before
attaching to the posterior body wall
- “peritonitis”
- Gastric pits which leads to gastric glands that
secrete the solution called gastric juice
- Mucous neck cells – produce a sticky alkaline
mucus, which clings to the stomach mucosa and
protects the stomach wall itself from being
damaged by the acid and digested by the
enzymes
- Chyme – heavy cream; after food has been
processed in the stomach
Small Intestine
- is the body’s major digestive organ.
- Chemical digestion starts
- Is a muscular tube extending from the pyloric
sphincter to the ileocecal valve
- Subdivisions:
- Duodenum – curves around the head of the
pancreas (25cm)
- Jejunum – 2.5m long and extends from the
duodenum to the ileum
- Ileum – 3.6m long; is the terminal part of the
small intestine
- Pyloric sphincter – “gatekeeper”
- Enzymes, produced by the intestinal cells and
by the pancreas and ducted into the duodenum
through the pancreatic duct, complete the
chemical breakdown of foods in the small
intestines. Bile also enters the duodenum
through the bile duct in the same area.
- The pancreatic and bile ducts join at the
duodenum to form the flashlike
hepatopancreatic ampulla(liver pancreatic
enlargement). From there, the bile and
pancreatic juice travel through the duodenal
papilla and enter the duodenum together.
Small Intestine
- where absorption occurs; structures:
- Microvilli-are tiny projections of the plasma
membrane of the mucosa cells that give the cell
surface a fuzzy appearance (brush border)
- Villi-are fingerlike projections of the mucosa
that give it a velvety appearance and feel.
Within each villus is a rich capillary bed and a
modified lymphatic capillary called a lacteal
- Circular folds- plicae circulares; are deep folds
of both mucosa and submucosa layers

- Decrease in number towards the end.

- Local collections of lymphatic tissue (Peyer’s
patches) found in the submucosa increase
toward the end of the small intestine.
Large intestine
- much larger in diameter than the small intestine,
but shorter in length. About 1.5m long, it extends
to the ileocecal valve to the anus.
- Major functions are to dry out the indigestible
food residue by absorbing water, and to eliminate
these residues from the body as feces.

- Subdivisions:
- Cecum – saclike; first part of the large intestine
- Appendix –potential trouble spot; “appendicitis”
- Colon: ascending travels up the right side of the
abdominal cavity and makes a turn, the right colic
or hepatic flexure, to travel across the abdominal
cavity as the transverse colon. It then turns again
at the left colic, or splenic flexure, and continues
down the left side as the descending colon, to
enter the pelvis, where it becomes S-shaped
sigmoid colon.
- Rectum
- Anal canal – ends ate the anus which opens to
the exterior; has external voluntary sphincter
composed of skeletal muscle and an internal
involuntary sphincter formed by smooth muscle
Accessory Digestive Organs
• Pancreas is a soft, pink, triangular gland that extends across the
abdomen from the spleen to the duodenum; produces wide spectrum of
enzymes
• Liver is the largest gland in the body. It is located under the
diaphragm, more to the right side of the body. The liver has four lobes
and is suspended from the diaphragm and abdominal wall by a delicate
mesentery cord, the falciform ligament. Digestive function: produce
bile-leaves the liver through the common hepatic duct and enters the
duodenum through the bile duct.
• Gallbladder is a small, thin-walled green sac that snuggles in a
shallow fossa in the inferior surface of the liver. When food digestion
is not occurring, bile backs up the cystic duct and enters the
gallbladder to be stored.
∆ gallstones, jaundice, hepatitis, cirrhosis
Accessory Digestive Organs
• Salivary glands empty their secretion into the mouth.
• Large parotid glands lie anterior to the ears. Mumps
• Submandibular glands empty their secretions into the floor of the mouth
• Small sublingual glands through tiny ducts

• Saliva – is a mixture of mucus and serous fluids. Mucus moistens and helps to bind food
together into a mass called bolus, which makes chewing and swallowing easier. The clear
serous portion contains enzyme, salivary amylase which begins the process of starch
digestion in the mouth; contains lysosome and antibodies; dissolves food chemicals so
they can be tasted
Accessory Digestive Organs
• Teeth – masticate, or chew; tear and grind the food, breaking it down
into smaller fragments
• Deciduous teeth – baby teeth or milk teeth; erupt at 6months; full teeth 2years
• Permanent teeth (32) – enlarge and develop, the roots of the milk teeth are
reabsorbed, and between the ages of 6 and 12 years they loosen and fall out.
All of the permanent teeth but the third molars have erupted by the end of
adolescence. Third molar(wisdom teeth) emerge later between the ages of 17
and 25. Impaction
• Classification according to shape and function:
• Incisors – adapted for cutting
• Canines – (eye-teeth); tearing or piercing
• Premolars (bicuspid) and molars – have broad crowns with rounded cusps
(tips) and are best suited for grinding
• Two major regions:
• Crown – enamel-covered, exposed part of the tooth above the gingiva
• Root – portion of the tooth embedded in the jawbone
Functions of the Digestive System
1. Ingestion – food must be placed into the mouth before it can be acted on
2. Propulsion – propelled from one organ to next
3. Food breakdown: mechanical digestion – mixing of food in the mouth
by tongue, churning of food in the stomach, and segmentation in the small
intestine; prepares food for further degradation by enzymes
4. Food breakdown: chemical digestion – sequence of steps in which large
food molecules are broken down to their building blocks by enzymes
5. Absorption – transport of digested end products from the lumen of the GI
tract to the blood or lymph
6. Defecation – elimination of indigestible substances from the body via
anus in the form of feces
Activities Occurring in the Mouth, Pharynx, and
Esophagus
FOOD INGESTION AND BREAKDOWN
1. Food is physically broken down into smaller particles by chewing
2. As the food is mixed with saliva, salivary amylase begins the
chemical digestion of starch, breaking it down into maltose

No food absorption occurs in the mouth; some Dx such as

Nitrolycerin are absorbed in the oral mucosa
Pharynx and Esophagus have no digestive function; provide
passageways to carry food to the next site, the stomach.
Activities Occurring in the Mouth, Pharynx, and
Esophagus
FOOD PROPULSION-Swallowing and Peristalsis

 deglutition/Swallowing – involves the coordinated activity of several

structures (tongue, soft-palate, pharynx, and esophagus)
 Phases:
 Voluntary Buccal phase – once the food has been chewed and well mixed with saliva,
the bolus (food mass) is forced into the pharynx by the tongue. As food enters the
pharynx, it passes out of our control and into the realm of reflex activity
 Involuntary Pharyngeal-Esophageal phase – the parasympathetic division of the ANS
(primarily the vagus nerve) controls this phase and promotes the mobility of the
digestive organs from this point on.
Activities of the Stomach
Food Breakdown

Secretion of gastric juice is regulated by both neural and hormonal

factors
Gastrin is a hormone that stimulates the stomach glands to produce
still more of the protein-digesting enzymes (pepsinogens), mucus, and
HCl
Under normal conditions, 2-3 liters of gastric juice are produced every
day
Ulcers, heart burn, esophagitis, hiatal hernia
Activities of the Stomach
Food Propulsion

Enterogastric reflex – “puts the brakes on” gastric activity and slows the
emptying of the stomach by inhibiting the vagus nerves and tightening the
pyloric sphincter, thus allowing time for intestinal processing to catch up
∆ vomiting – (emetic center in the medulla); reverse peristalsis occurring in
the stomach
Activities of the Small Intestine
Food Breakdown and Absorption
Microvilli – brush border enzymes that break down double sugars into
simple sugars and complete protein digestion
Pancreatic juice contains enzymes:
• Pancreatic amylase – complete digestion of starch
• Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, and others – carry out about half of
protein digestion
• Lipases – responsible for fat digestion
• Nucleases – digest nucleic acid
Activities of the Small Intestine
∆ Pancreatitis – inflammation of the pancreas that results from
activation of pancreatic enzymes in the pancreatic duct
Hormones and Hormonelike Products that Act in Digestion
Hormone Source Stimulus for Secretion Action
Gastrin Stomach Food in stomach Stimulates release of gastric juice; stimulates mobility of
(chemical stimulus) small intestine; relaxes ileocecal valve
Histamine Stomach Food in stomach Activates parietal cells to secrete HCl
Somatostatin Stomach Food in stomach Inhibit secretion of gastric juice and pancreatic juice; inhibits
emptying of stomach and gallbladder
Secretin Duodenum Acidic chyme and partially Increases output of pancreatic juice rich in bicarbonate ions;
digested foods in duodenum increases bile output by liver; inhibits gastric mobility and
gastric gland secretion
Cholecystokinin Duodenum Fatty chyme in duodenum Increases output of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice; stimulates
(CCK) gallbladder to expel stored bile; relaxes sphincter of duodenal
papilla to allow bile and pancreatic juice to enter the
duodenum
Gastric inhibitory Duodenum Fatty chime in duodenum Inhibits gastric mobility and secretion of gastric juice
peptide (GIP)
Activities of the Small Intestine
Food Propulsion
 Peristalsis – is the major means of propelling food through the
digestive tract
→ involves waves of contraction that move along the length of the intestine, followed by
waves of relaxation
→ net effect is that food is moved through the small intestine
Activities of the LargeIntestine
Food Breakdown and Absorption
 food stays in the large intestine for 12-24 hrs
“resident” bacteria that live within its lumen metabolize some of the
remaining nutrients, releasing gases (methane and hydrogen sulphide)
that contribute the odor of feces
500ml of gas (flatus) is produced each day
Feces, the more or less solid product delivered to the rectum, contain
undigested food residues, mucus, millions of bacteria, and just enough
water to allow their smooth passage
Activities of the LargeIntestine
Propulsion of the Residue and Defecation

 colon peristalsis – is sluggish and, contributes very little to

propulsion
 mass movements – long, slow-moving but powerful contractile
waves that move over large areas of the colon three or four times daily
and force the contents towards the rectum
∆ diverticula – mucosa protrudes through the colon walls
∆ diverticulosis – inflamed diverticula, can be life-threatening if
ruptures occur
Activities of the LargeIntestine
Propulsion of the Residue and Defecation
 defecation reflex – is a spinal (sacral region) reflex that causes the walls of
the sigmoid colon and the rectum to contract and the anal sphincter to relax

∆ diarrhea – results from any condition that rushes food residue to the large
intestine before that organ has had sufficient time to absorb the water;
dehydration and electrolyte imbalance could occur
∆ constipation – food residue remains in the large intestine for extended
periods, too much water is absorbed, and the stool becomes hard and
difficult to pass; result from lack of fiber in diet, poor bowel habits, and
laxative abuse
Nutrition
• nutrient is a substance in food that is used by the body to
promotenormal growth, maintenance, and repair
• major nutrients:
• Carbohydrates make up the
• Lipids bulk of what we eat
• Proteins
• Vitamins required in minute
• Minerals amounts
• Water
Dietary sources of the major nutrients:
• Carbohydrates – sugars and starches we ingest are derived from
plants
• Lipids – neutral fats (triglycerides); saturated fats: meat, dairy foods,
and coconut; unsaturated fats: seeds, nuts, vegetable oils; cholesterol:
egg yolk, meats and milk products
• Proteins – molecules that are basically amino acid polymers; rich in
animal products; eggs, milk, and most meat proteins are complete
proteins that meet all of the body’s amino acid requirements for tissue
maintenance and growth
• Vitamins – organic nutrients of various forms that the body requires in
small amounts; coenzymes(they act with an enzyme to accomplish a
particular type of catalysis)
• Minerals – vegetables, legumes, milk, and some meats
Metabolism
• Metabolism – refers to all chemical reactions that are necessary to
maintain life.

• Involves:
• Catabolism – substances are broken down to simpler substances
• Anabolism – larger molecules or structures are built from smaller ones
Carbohydrate metabolism
• Fuel to produce energy
• Glucose – blood sugar; is the major breakdown of carbohydrate
digestion; major fuel used for making ATP in most body cells
Fat metabolism
• Fats – used by the liver to make ATP for their own use; some
synthesize lipoproteins, thromboplastin, and cholesterol, and then
release the rest to the blood in the form of relatively small, fat-
breakdown products; body cells remove the fat products and
cholesterol from the blood and build them into their membranes or
steroids hormones as needed; used to form myelin sheaths of neurons
and fatty cushions around body organs
− stored fats are the body’s most concentrated source of energy
Protein metabolism
• Proteins – make up the bulk of cellular structures, and they are
carefully conserved by body cells
Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism
• Digestion: manufacture of bile
• Detoxify drugs and alcohol
• Degrade hormones
• Make substances vital to the body as a whole
• Play central role in metabolism
Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism
• Hepatic portal circulation – brings nutrient-rich blood draining from
the digestive viscera directly to the liver
General
metabolic function
Cholesterol metabolism and transport
• Cholesterol – serves as the structural basis of steroid hormones and
vitamin D and is a major building block of plasma membranes

• Low-density lipoproteins, LDL – transport cholesterol and other

lipids to body cells; ↑ LDL, chance that fatty substances will be
deposited in the arterial walls, initiating atherosclerosis; “bad
lipoproteins”
• High-density lipoproteins, HDL – transport cholesterol from the
tissue cells to the liver for its disposal in bile; “good”
Body Energy Balance
• Energy intake – is the nenrgy liberated during food oxidation; during
the reactions of glycolysis, the Kreb’s cycle, and the electron transport
chain
• Energy output – the energy we immediately lose as heat, used to do
work, stored in the form of fat and glycogens
Body Energy Balance
• Regulation of Food Intake – when energy intake and energy outflow are
balanced, body weight remains stable
• Basal Metabolic Rate – is the amount of heat produced by the body per
unit of time when it is under basal condition—at rest; 70kg adult has a
BMR of about 60 to 72 kcal/hour
• Thyroxine – important factor in determining a person’s BMR; “metabolic
hormome”
∆ hyperthyroidism – a condition in which thyroid gland produces too much
thyroxine; lose weigth
∆ hypothyroidism – thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid
hormones; obesity
Body Energy Balance
• Total Metabolic Rate – refers to the total amount of kcal the body
must consume to fuel all ongoing activities
• Body Temperature Regulation – reflects the balance between heat
production and heat loss; cold: vasoconstriction and shivering; high:
radiation or evaporation
∆ frost bite – the skin cells, deprived of oxygen and nutrients, begin to die
∆ hypothermia – extremely low body temperature resulting from prolonged
exposure to cold
∆ hyperthermia – elevated body temperature
∆ heat stroke – skin becomes hot and dry, and as the temperature continues to
spiral upward, permanent brain damage becomes a distinct possibility
∆ heat exhaustion – heat-associated collapse of an individual during or
following physical activity
∆ fever – controlled hyperthermia
Congenital defects
• Cleft palate
• Tracheoesophageal fistula
• Cystic fibrosis
• Phenylketonuria