HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

DISCOVERY OF THE CIVILIZATION

 In 1826, Harappa discovered by Charles
Masson, of the East India Company Army
 Alexander Burnes visited Harappa a few
years later
 In 1856 Alexander Cunningham, a military
engineer visited Harappa while laying railway
lines between Karachi and Lahore
 Revisited in 1872 as Director General of
Archaeological Survey of India
FIRST EXCAVATIONS

•Excavations at Harappa, Sahiwal district, Punjab,

Pakistan
1920 •By Daya Ram Sahni

•Excavations at Mohenjo Daro

•By Rakhaldas Banerji
1921

•Announcement of the discovery of Harappan

civilization by John Marshall
•Indian antiquity pushed back to Mesopotamian and
1924 Egyptian civilization
THE INDUS TRADITION

2600-1900 BC
6500-5000 BC

5000-2600 BC
Early food Regionalization Harappan
producing era era Culture
URBANIZATION
 Emergence of cities from earlier rural
settlements
 City is seen as symbol of a revolution that
marked a new economic stage in the evolution
of society
 Culmination of centuries of gradual social and
economic changes
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CITIES (GORDON CHILDE)
1. Extensive in size and densely populated than villages
2. Presence of full-time specialists of craftsmen, merchants,
officials and priests
3. Surplus paid as tax or tribute
4. Monumental public buildings
5. Ruling class lived off surplus produced by farmer and in
return provided them with peace and security
6. Writing and systems of recording
7. Development of sciences like arithmetic, geometry and
astronomy
8. Sculptors, painters or seal engravers
9. Long distance trade
10. State society based on territory rather than kinship
 HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

 First urban settlements: Mohenjo-Daro and

Harappa, which stands out due to its size and
architectural features
 Other large sites: Rakhigarhi, Dholavira

 About 1022 sites in total; 406 in Pakistan and

616 in India. Only 97 have been excavated
Northern most site is Mandu in Jammu; southern
most is Malvan in Gujarat
 Westermost is Sutkagendor on the Makran coast
and easternmost is Alamgirpur in Saharanpur
district, UP
HARAPPAN SITES
HARAPPAN SITES
ORIGIN
 Harappan culture was a long and complex
process of 3 phases: The Early Harappan
(3200-2600 BC), mature Harappan (2600-
1900 BC) and late Harappan (1900-1300 BC).
 John Marshall argued for indigenous origins

 Diffusionist theories: Mortimer Wheeler; EJH

Mackay; DH Gordon; SN Kramer
DIFFUSIONIST THEORIES: PROBLEMS
Based on the The theories Technologies
assumption take up do not get
that cultural superficial transplanted in
changes in differences new areas
different parts and ignore the automatically.
of the world differences. There has to
are connected There should be a need for
to each other. be striking them in the
Eg. Origin of degrees of recipient
agriculture in 3 similarity culture
different
regions at the
same time
INDIGENOUS ANTECEDENTS
 Amalendu Ghosh identified similarities
between pre-Harappan Sothi culture of
Rajasthan and mature Harappan culture.
 He traced similarities of Sothi ware with pottery
from Zhob and Quetta (Neolithic sites) and pre-
Harappan Kalibangan, Kot Diji and lowest
levels of Harappa and Kalibangan and mature
Harappan levels at Kalibangan
 He argues that Sothi culture was pre-Harappan
INDIGENOUS ANTECEDENTS
 Rafique Mughal compared a whole range of
evidence to compare pre-Harappan and mature
Harappan sites
 The pre-Harappan phase showed large fortified
settlements, high level of expertise in
specialised crafts
 Similarities in the raw materials used

 Early Harappan levels identified at a large no.

of sites ; it formed a stepping stone to
urbanization
MEHRGARH
 Earliest agricultural and pastoral community,
dating 7000-6500 BC
 Early settlers lived in mud brick houses; buried
their dead next to their houses; did not use
pottery
 Around 5500 BC, they started creating
terracotta figurines and crude pottery
 Similar regional cultures at Nausharo, Kot Diji,
Amri in terms of ornaments, beads, pottery,
terracotta figurines
 Use of grid streets; mud brick houses, seals etc
GENERAL FEATURES OF SETTLEMENTS

 Both urban and rural settlements

 Streets and houses laid out in a grid pattern;
exhibits town planning
 Different plans at sites: a raised citadel complex
and a lower city at Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and
Kalibangan; Dholavira divided into three parts
 In villages, houses made of mud bricks; in towns
and cities; houses made of sun-dried and burnt
bricks
 In Kutch and Saurashtra, extensive use of stone
CITADEL MOUND
GENERAL FEATURES
 House walls survive at Mohenjo daro because
of the strength of the bricks and the brick-
laying style (English bond style)
 Uniformity in average size of bricks; identical
ratio of thickness, width and length
 Houses of different size, some with courtyards,
some with staircases
 Floors were made with hard packed earth,
replastered or covered with sand
 Separate bathing areas and toilets
 Bathing platforms with drains located in rooms
next to wells
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
 M Wheeler and S. Piggot argue for a wetter
climate due to 4 reasons
1. Large no. of burnt bricks required large
quantities of fuel, possible only with adequate
forests
2. Large no. of embankments in the Baluchistan
area suggest heavy rainfall
3. Depiction of animals such a tiger, elephant,
rhino suggest forest and grassland vegetation
4. Elaborate drainage system of cities was to
carry off rain water
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
 Many scholars hold that climatic conditions at
these sites have been constant since Harappan
times
 Gurdip Singh’s analysis of pollen from 3
saltwater lakes and 1 freshwater lake from
Rajasthan has concluded that there was
increase in rainfall in 3000 BC and decrease in
1800 BC
SUBSISTENCE BASE
 Agriculture was mainstay, with animal
husbandry and hunting
 Sources of subsistence patterns- plant
remains, animal bones, motifs on seal and
pottery
 Wheat- Mohenjodaro and Harappa

 Barley- Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan

 Sesame- Harappa

 Watermelon seeds, peas, dates- Harappa

 Rice- Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal, Rangpur

 Discovery of a ploughed field at Kalibangan
 Terracotta models of ploughs

 Embankments and irrigation canals

 Canal network in the Haryana area

 Indicates established agricultural patterns

ANIMAL REMAINS

 Bones of wild animals like deer, pig, boar,

sheep, goat, ass
 Bones of tortoise and fish have also been
found
 Rhino bones at Amri although its depicted more
commonly on seals and pottery
 Very less elephant and camel bones

 Rabbits, pigeons, peacocks, ducks, monkeys

represented on pottery
 Domesticated animals- buffalo, sheep, goat
 Used for meat, milk, draught animals

 Question of the horse is controversial- bones

found do not indicate whether it belongs to the
ass or the domesticated horse
 Dog figurines suggest the domestication of this
animal
ARTS AND CRAFTS

 Variety of standardized, mass-produced items

at Harappan sites
 Greater in quantity and range, display
technological superiority than earlier phases
 Pottery reflects efficient mass production

 Brick kilns at Mohenjodaro, Harappa,

Nausharo, Chanhudaro
 Variety of pottery- back on red, grey, black and
red ware
 Most pots are wheel turned
ARTS AND CRAFTS
 Terracotta figurines of animals such as bulls,
buffaloes, monkeys, dogs
 Human figurines include both male and female
figurines
 Terracotta bangles found at Mohenjodaro and
Harappa
 Stone work – polished pillars at Dholavira, sickles,
knives, stone blades
 Copper objects- very few pure copper objects;
most are alloyed with arsenic, tin and nickel; eg.
Vessels, spears, knives, short swords, arrowheads,
axes, needles, rings, bangles
 ARTS AND CRAFTS
 Gold and silver jewellery – necklaces, bracelets,
brooches, pendants and earrings
 Seal-making – most seals are square or
rectangular. A few cylindrical and round seals.
Made of steatite, silver, faience, calcite
 Seals were heated with a alkali, giving it a
lustrous surface
 Sunken engraving, with the impression appearing
in relief, motifs include elephant, tiger, antelope,
crocodile, hare, humped bull, buffalo, rhino,
unicorn
UNICORN SEALS
 ARTS AND CRAFTS
 Bead making- made of various semi-precious
stones- steatite, agate, carnelian, lapis lazuli,
shell, terracotta, gold, silver and copper.
 Carnelian beads industry was an important craft
activity. One of the specialized centres of
production was Chanhudaro.
BEADS
HARAPPAN POTTERY
NETWORKS OF TRADE
 Reconstructing trade network of Harappans
require identification of the raw materials they
used and their availability
 Lime Stones- Sukkur and Rohri hills

 Copper- Khetri, Rajasthan

 Lead, zinc- Rajasthan

 Tin- Haryana, not available locally otherwise

 Gold- Kolar fields, Karnataka

 Most stones for bead manufacture came from

Gujarat
 Lapis lazuli- Afghanistan
NETWORKS OF TRADE
 Modes of transport- 2 wheeled carts, animals
such as oxen, sheep, goats, donkeys; boats
 Trade routes connected various regions like
Sindh, Baluchistan, Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat
 Also a trade route connecting north
Afghanistan and Multan with the Indus plains
 Coastal routes- linking Gujarat sites such as
Lothal and Dholavira to sites on the Makran
coast
OVERSEAS TRADE
 No. of Harappan and Harappan related objects
discovered at sites in Turkmenistan, Iran
 Main evidences are seals and carnelian beads

 Harappan trade contacts with the Persian Gulf-

piece of ivory, linga-shaped, seal with Harappan
scripts
 Evidence for trade with Mesopotamia –
reference to ships from lands of Dilmun,
Magan, Meluha
 OVERSEAS TRADE
 Seals and carnelian beads at Kish, Lagash,
Nippur and Ur (Mesopotamian sites)
 Carnelian beads also found at royal graves in Ur,
suggesting their value as items of import
 Motifs such as the bull on Mesopotamian seals
reflect Harappan influence
 Absence of Mesopotamian seals in Harappa
suggests Mesopotamians were not directly
involved in trade with Harappa
HARAPPAN WRITING

 Undeciphered script
 Writing on seals, copper tablets, pottery

 Around 3,700 inscribed objects have been

found, 80 % of them come from Mohenjodaro
and Harappa
 Writing on the seals are probably in the language
of the ruling elite
 Some scholars suggest the language of the
Harappans belonged to Dravidian family; some
argued for the the Indo-Aryan family
HARAPPAN WRITING
 Script is logo-syllabic- each symbol stood for a
word or syllable
 It is meant to be read from right to left

 Longer inscriptions were written in

boustrophedon style- with consecutive lines
starting in opposite directions
 Most writings are on seals- might have been
used to identify merchandise for trade
 Writing on pottery indicates higher incidence of
literacy
HARAPPAN SEALS WITH WRITING SEALS WITH WRITING
HARAPPAN RELIGION
 Worship of female goddesses associated with
fertility
 Large no. of terracotta female figurines and
female representations on seals
 Most figurines found broken and discarded
 John Marshall suggested they were votive
offerings
 Pashupati seal- male figure with a buffalo horn
head dress seated on a dais with legs bent
under him. Flanked by 4 animals- elephant,
rhino, buffalo, tiger.
 Resemblance with Shiva
HARAPPAN RELIGION

 Worship of stone icons of the linga and yoni

 No. of trees, plants and animals depicted on
seals could indicate cultic significance
THEORIES OF DECLINE

 M. Wheeler- Aryan invasion

 References in Rigveda to forts, attacks on
walled cities
 God Indra called purandara (destroyer of forts)

 Identified a place called Hariyupiya in the Rig

Veda with Harappa
 Skeletal remains at Mohenjodaro indicate
massacre by Aryans
THEORIES OF DECLINE

 MR Sahni, Robert Raikes, George Dale – Flood

Theory
 Mohenjodaro flooded by the Indus

 Tectonic movements led to formation of a

natural dam so that the Indus stopped flowing
towards the sea
GREAT BATH
GREAT BATH
GREAT BATH DRAIN
LOWER TOWN
COURTYARD
DOUBLE STOREYED HOUSE
COVERED DRAIN
MAIN STREET LOWER TOWN
NARROW STREET LANES
BATHING PLATFORM
WELL AT MOHENJODARO
WELL AND PLATFORM
WELL NEAR GREAT BATH
COLLEGE OF PRIESTS
TERRACOTTA FIGURINES
CART DRAWN BY BUFFALO
FEMALE FIGURINE WITH FAN-SHAPED HEAD
DRESS
MALE FIGURINE
PRIEST KING
DANCING GIRL