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Rather than look for individuals who are willing to trade and
then haggling, a numeraire good [money] may be used. The
numeraire good is universally acceptable so individuals will
accept it in payment even though it is not the good they want.
P MR =
DTR TR
20 DQ or, MR
TR
Q
\ MR = 20 - 4 Q
Demand, AR, TR and MR can also be
MR 10 Q shown using a table. . . . .
2 $16 DQ = -.5
DP Since the slope is -.5, for each
$14 $1 change in price, Q will
3
decrease by .5. At P= $0, the
4 $12 quantity would be 10. From $6
to $0, Q increases by .5
5 $10 for each $1, so when P = 0 then
Q = 10
6 $8
Q = 10
a --.5
m P or, P = 20 - 2Q
7 $6 Is the Demand function being used as an example.
.
Q MR
P=AR 16 the value associated with a
level of output is actually
1 $18
$18 14 between that quantity
.
and the next lower
12 quantity.
2 $16
$14
10
.
3 $14
$10 8
4 $12
$6 6
5
6
$10
$2
$8
$-2
4
2 .
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
7 $6
$-6 Q/ut
MR
.
TR=PQ
the point where TR is a Maximum.
12
ep = -1
10 at P = $12 As price decreases, TR decreases.
TR
Q = $10x5=$50
= 4;
16x2=
8 The maximum |ep| < 1; inelastic
TR = $48
32=TR
6 TR
AtisP at theQ=6
= $8,
“midpoint”
TR = $48 of
4 a linear demand.
At a price of $4, Q is 8:
2
TR = PQ = 32
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Q/ut
Fall ‘ 97 Principles of Microeconomics Slide -- 23
P, $
AR and MR are related;
18 The MR function is 2x as steep as AR or,
16 its slope it twice the slope of AR. It will be
half as far away from the Y-axis at every
14 price [it bisects the space between the axis and
demand function.]
12
10 The maximum TR occurred where; MR= 0
3 3
8 TR = PQ The area under the MR is TR, by
6 TR = $10x5 =50 taking a piece of this area, it can
be shown that it is the equivalent of
4 the maximum TR as described by
PQ = TR [using AR function].
2
MR=0 [both are right angles,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 sides are equal,
Q/ut angles are equal]
MR
Fall ‘ 97 angle, side,Principles
angle of = angle, side, angle
Microeconomics Slide -- 24
.
50 = TR
TR is related to both
AR and MR.
Where MR = O, TR is a maximum.
For out example, this occurs
at Q = 5, P=$10.
TR is a maximum where,
ep = -1
P, $
Soooo, if there are no
max
costs, you would want to
produce 5 units which you
TR ep = -1
$10
could sell at $10 for a total TR = PQ AR TR
of $50. Sum
TRof
= 50
DTR’s
5 Q/ut
Fall ‘ 97 Principles of Microeconomics
MR Slide -- 25
Consider the choices of picking blackberries. Instead of TR
you want to maximize Total utility [TU] or Total Benefit [TB]
As more and more blackberries are picked, the marginal benefit
[MB] of each additional unit of blackberries decreases.
A rational person would pick the easiest blackberries first,
therefore as they pick additional units of fruit the marginal
cost rises.
0 [X-1] X [X+1]
If one more unit is picked [X+1], BB/ut
net benefits are reduced by area esw
.
Fall ‘ 97 Principles of Microeconomics Slide -- 28
TB the slope of TC
TC TR = slope Total benefits [TB] tend to
TB1 of TC TB increase at a decreasing rate,
and may decline.
MAX
Total costs [TC] tend to
TC1 increase at an increasing rate.
NET BENEFITS TB-TC are maximized
where the vertical distance
Q/ut between TB and TC is greatest.
X
or, max net benefits is where MB = MC
MB
MC MC MB [the slope of TB] decreases,
and MB becomes negative.
max MC [the slope of TC] increases.
net
The slope of TR = MR,
benefits
the slope of TC = MC.
MB
Q/ut
X
Fall ‘ 97 Principles of Microeconomics Slide -- 29
.
Highest Valued Use
· An important function of markets is to
insure that resources are used in their
highest valued use.
· markets can be viewed as an “information
system” that uses relative prices as a
signaling mechanism
· individuals react to relative prices in an
attempt to optimize the achievement of
their objectives
Fall ‘ 97 Principles of Microeconomics Slide -- 30
MB
MC Net benefits are maximized where MB = MC.
MC
As long as the MB > MC, produce the
Max additional unit.
P net
benefits If MC > MB, reduce production a unit.
At X units of output: the last unit
MB produced has a MB = MC.
The value of the last unit produced and sold [bought] will be equal to the
price, P.
Where MB = P = MC, the results are MB
“optimal,” i.e. those who can produce MC MC
the good at a MC less than [or equal] P,
will have an incentive to supply the
good. P
Buyers who have a MB > P will
be able to purchase the units they want.
MB
X
.Fall ‘ 97
. Principles of Microeconomics Slide -- 32
A
MB Using MB and MC, the distribution of
MC MC benefits between buyers and sellers
can be demonstrated.
Consumer
E
surplus At a market price of P, buyers can buy
P the X units they want. All the units up
producer
surplus to X units of the good have a MB in
excessive the price. P. This area is
MB
called “consumer surplus” [or consumer’s
R
surplus] and is shown in the area PEA.
X
The sellers can produce the first X units at a MC less than the
price, P. Since they can sell at the price P, the earn a surplus on
those units; “producer surplus” is shown as area REP.
X X0
The parties to the exchange will agree to X amount as optimal,
if the externality had been included, only X0 would be optimal.
Since the individual cannot be excluded, the have no incentive to pay for the
good even though they benefit from it; they become “free riders.” To pay
for the collective good government may tax the individuals and provide the
good. In which case individuals may become “forced riders.” A quasi-public
good is like a road or park, we could exclude an individual from using the
good, but it may not be desirable to do so. Because of the problems
associated with collective goods and quasi-public goods, markets do not
result in optimal allocations.
These are resources that are held “in common,” or are “fugitive”
resources; whoever captures the resources acquires the right to
use it.
..
Fall ‘ 97 Principles of Microeconomics Slide -- 42
Summary
· Markets are a social institution that will
coordinate individuals’ behavior
· Problems develop when
· lack of competition
· property rights are not;
· exclusive
· enforceable
· transferable