Writing for Students with High-

Incidence Disabilities

Kathy B. Ewoldt, Ph.D.

11/18/2019
• Take out a ½ sheet of paper.
• No names
 Objectives
• Understand the importance of written
language instruction in a literacy program.
• Know instructional strategies to teach
handwriting, spelling, and written expression
• Understand variation in writing development
for students with disabilities and their general
education peers.
• Understand writing instruction in inclusion
classrooms and strategies for students with
high-incidence disabilities.
• Have tools to measure writing progress
 Writing Proficiency
(NAEP, 2011)

• 27% of all students; 5% of students with

disabilities; 1% of English learners

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2011 Writing Assessment.
 Writing Difficulties
• Teacher preparation: 60-70% of secondary
teachers receive little to no ‘How to teach
writing’ instruction in pre-service teacher
preparation programs (Graham, Capizzi, Harris,
Hebert, & Morphy, 2014).
– For those who receive training, majority is
done as professional development.
Why is writing instruction important?
• Persistent low achievement
• Changes in standards
• 80% secondary text is expository
• Academic & career success
• Cultural legacy
• Teacher competency
(Bazerman, 2016; College Board, 2004, 2005; Connelley & Dockrell, 2016; Graham, Capizzi, Harris, Hebert, & Morphy, 2
Graham, Gillespie, & McKeown, 2013; Graham & Hebert, 2010; Kiuhara, Graham, Hawken, 2014; National Commission on
Writing, 2002; National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010; U.
Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, 2012)
Language levels of writing

(Ewoldt, 2018)
Handwriting
 Handwriting
Handwriting is a predictive factor in determining
length and quality of composition
– Students will shift focus to motor production away
from composition/thought development
Typing on a computer is not always the answer
–High correlation between writing speed and typing
speed
– Without formal keyboarding instruction and ample
practice, students will not develop typing skills to
proficiency
 Handwriting
• Not addressed in Reading
CCSS??
Theory of printed
word learning (Ehri, 1979)

Spelling Handwriting
Systematic Handwriting Instruction
is Crucial
D’Nealian and Zaner-Bloser are
two common handwriting programs
• Commercial programs:
– Callirobics
– Handwriting without Tears
– Sensible Pencil
– Loops and Other Groups
 Zane Bloser:
Century Gothic Font
Spelling
 Morphographs
The smallest unit of identifiable meaning in written
English (e.g., “s” in cats)
Generally identified as: prefixes, suffixes, and bases
and roots
• The number of principles for combining
morphographs is small
• Examples:
– able, re, arm, claim, er, ing, cover, dis, order, un,
ness
• Meaning-based instruction rather than sound
– “er” = more (e.g., darker, faster, lighter)
– Not syllable “er” early, urgent, water, professor
 Morphemes
• Smallest unit of identifiable meaning.
• How many different combinations can
you create?
able ing
re cover
arm dis
claim order
er un
s ness
 Writing instruction in Bursuck &
Damer Text
• Spelling regular format p. 116
• Affixes/morphographs) & spelling
exception words p. 170-176
• Diagnostic spelling assessment p. 354
Composition
 5 Minute Writing Sample
There are many aspects that go into a
writing curriculum. Of the topics discussed
so far, what part of writing is most important
for students, in your opinion? Write a single
paragraph explaining your choice.
Why is composition difficult?
 What works?
• Direct, explicit, & systematic instruction
• Text structure instruction
• Graphic organizers
• Working memory supports

(Archer & Hughes, 2010; Gersten et al., 2008, 2009; Graham, 2006; Graham & Harris, 1985; Graham & Harris, 2003;
Gillespie & Graham, 2014; Graham & Perin, 2007; Swanson, 2001; Viel-Ruma, 2008;)
 Self-Regulated Strategy
Development (Harris & Graham, 1985)
• Single-most widely studied writing
intervention. (Gillespie & Graham, 2014)
• 5/6 Instructional steps for teachers
• Includes a mnemonic appropriate to the
task presented
– POW + TREE
– TIDE
– STOP + DARE
 SRSD
• Develop (It)Background Knowledge
• Discuss It
• Model It
• Memorize It
• Support It
• Establish Independent Practice (It)
https://srsdonline.org/
• Students learn 4 self-regulation strategies:
Goal-setting
Self-monitoring
Self-talk
Self-reinforcement

https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/sr
s/cresource/q2/p03/
 Turn & Learn
• What do you know about working
memory?
Working Memory

(Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)

Working Memory

(Baddeley, 2012)
 Assistive technologies
• Multiple variables to writing. Multiple
variables to technology.
• CLD Tech Committee study
• Spelling/word prediction effective supports
• Supports to aid working memory (Ewoldt &
Whitehurst, in progress)
– Ewoldt, K. B. (2018). Productivity apps supporting
higher-order writing skills for students with learning
disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, 53, 313–
320. doi: 10.1177/1053451217736868
 Components of an expository
paragraph
Type Characteristics
Topic States main idea
Sentence Keeps the idea general/broad
Only 1 main idea
Detail Gives specific information about the topic
Sentence Answers the “What” question
Explanation Gives information about the detail
Sentence Answers the “Why” or “How” question
Conclusion General statement about the topic
Sentence Similar idea of topic sentence using different words
Wraps up the paragraph
Signals reader paragraph is ending (or transitioning to
new paragraph)
Typically the last sentence
May include the author’s general feeling/attitude
 Rainbow Revisions: Song analysis
example
1. Highlight your introductory sentence in yellow.
2. In blue, color in the indented section of your
paragraph. Did you indent?
3. In orange, circle each end punctuation mark. Do
you have 7-8 sentences?
4. In green, underline your examples from the text.
Do you have 3 detail sentences?
5. In red, underline your commentary sentences. Do
you have 3 explanation sentences?
6. Circle 3 verbs in blue. Could you change these to
more vivid verbs?
7. Highlight your conclusion sentence in green.
 Rainbow Revisions: Practice
• Circle your introductory sentence.
• Did you indent? Shade the indented section of your
paragraph.
• Circle each end punctuation mark. Do you have 5-8
sentences?
• Underline specific examples. Double underline
commentary/explanations of your specific examples.
Does each example have commentary/explanation?
• Circle your conclusion sentence. Does it wrap up
the paragraph for your reader?
 Progress Monitoring
• Spelling
• Correct letter sequenc
• Correct word sequence
• Correct/Incorrect word sequence
• Aimsweb by Pearson
 Progress Monitoring
• Spelling: Correct Letter Sequence
• Place a ^ between each set of 2 letters
where the both the first & second are
correct, INLCUDING nothing & first letter
AND last letter & nothing
• Number of letters in word +1 = possible
correct letter sequences (LS)
• ^d^i^r^e^c^t^
– 7 LS
 Correct Letter Sequence
• Write DIREKT on your paper
• With a partner, calculate the correct letter
sequence.

• Write the word DRAKT on your paper

• Calculate the correct letter sequence on
your own
 Correct Letter Sequence
• ^d^i^r^ek t^
5/7 Correct Letter Sequences
• ^d r a k t^
2/7 Correct Letter Sequences
Progress Monitoring: Correct Word
Sequence
Correct Words: Two adjacent, correctly spelled &
used words, acceptable within the context of the
sample to a native English speaker.
Read paragraph sample
Place vertical line where punctuation should be
Underline words used incorrectly
Place ^ two word correct word sequence
Nothing & Non-underlined word at the beginning of a
sentence
Non-underlined word & nothing at end of sentence
 PM: Correct/Incorrect Word
Sequence (CIWS)
• Correct word sequence markings (see
previous slide)
• Place upside-down carrot below two words
in incorrect sequence.
• Correct – Incorrect = CIWS
 CIWS Example
One day, we were playing outside the
school and …
I Shrunk a Person olmost Steped on me
But I Ran to fast ten Bjorn Nodest me. I
seid Can You help me with Everthing he
sied Yes! Ov course I sead Ya!
 What is working memory?

One day, we were playing outside the school and … ˆI

ˆ Shrunk   a v Person  olmost  Steped  on ˆ me ˆ But

ˆ I ˆ Ran  to  fast   ten  Bjorn  Nodest  me ˆ . ˆ I  seid

 Can ˆ You ˆ help ˆ me ˆ with  Everthing   he  sied 

Yes ˆ !  Ov  course ˆ I  sead  Ya  !

Word Student Spelling LS
said siad /5
word word /5
other udr /6
her her /4
look look /5
should shud /7
find find /5
did did /4
part pot /5
little littile /7
live live /5
very very /5
name name /5
think shick /6
through fhow /8
mean men /5
tell tel /5
want wot /5
around rand /7
Word Student Spelling LS
said ^s i a d^ 2 /5
word ^w^o^r^d^ 5 /5
other u d r^ 1 /6
her ^h^e^r^ 4 /4
look ^l^o^o^k^ 5 /5
should ^s^h u d^ 3 /7
find ^f^i^n^d^ 5 /5
did ^d^i^d^ 4 /4
part ^p o t^ 2 /5
little ^l^i^t^t i l^e^ 6 /7
live ^l^i^v^e^ 5 /5
very ^v^e^r^y^ 5 /5
name ^n^a^m^e^ 5 /5
think s h^i c k^ 2 /6
through fhow 0 /8
mean ^m^e n^ 2 /5
tell ^t^e^l 3 /5
want ^w o t^ 2 /5
around r a n^d^ 2 /7
 Contact Me!

Kathy.Ewoldt@utsa.edu
Ewoldt.Weebly.com
 Addisitonal Spelling &
Handwriting Information
 Spelling
Too much focus on spelling causes the writer to
put little attention on the organization and
audience.
Difficulty with spelling leads to the belief that
students cannot write.
APPROACHES TO SPELLING
INSTRUCTION
Phonemic
Approach
/c/ /a/ /t/

Whole Word Morphemic

Approach Approach
Implicit &
Explicit re-cover-ed

Simonsen, Gunter, Marchand-Martella (n.d.)

 Spelling Research

Research supports formal spelling instruction (Graham & Harris,

2005; Graham, Harris, & Chorzempa, 2002; Wanzek, Vaughn, Wexler, Swanson, Edmonds, &
Kim, 2006 )

Key elements include:

• Systematic study strategies
• Immediate feedback
• Repeated practice

• Teaching rules and/or morphology (Wanzek et al., 2006)

 Spelling Rules

• Each rule is introduced for two consecutive

lessons using different examples
• Students are taught a process for applying the
rule
Final E Rule En Variation
• Rules Doubling Rule Contractions
Vowel-Consonant Al Insertion
Y-to-I Rule O-r ending
Plural Variation

• Example, “When a word ends in ‘e’ and you

add a morphograph that begins with a vowel,
drop the ‘e’.”
 Other Spelling Rules

• Every word has at least one vowel.

• Every syllable has at least one vowel.
• The c and the g rule. (followed by i, e, or y = soft)
• Q is always followed by u.
• Double the consonants f, l, and s at the end of a
one-syllable word that has just one vowel.
• To spell the k sound at the end of a word, use
either ck or k. Use ck after a short vowel (sick)
and use k for everything else (milk).
• Capitalize names.
• Vowels say their name at the end of a syllable.
 Other Spelling Rules

• Words do not end in v or j.

We add a silent e at the end
of the word.
• Contractions replace letters.
• I and o may be short before
two consonants (kind, sold).
• J is spelled dge after a short
vowel (edge).
 Lesson Sequencing

• Introduction of New Morphographs

– At least 4 different opportunities (verbal &
written) to practice new morphograph
(e.g., “port”)
• Applying morphographs to spelling
different words
– Students use rules to spell new words
(e.g., reporter, portable, imported,
exporting, deportation)
• Cumulative practice
– Frequent use of the skills
– Intermittent review exercises
 Spelling Stages: 1. Prephonemic
Invented spelling changes as
children become aware of the rules
of English.
children form letters correctly, but
have not yet discovered that letters
represent sounds or phonemes in
words.
Represented by children stringing random
letters.
 Spelling: 2. Early phonetic stage
Children attempt to represent phonemes in words with
letters, but they usually represent only one or two letters
in words, generally the initial and the final sound.
RSK [ask], YL [while], KS [kiss],
OD [old], YSTDA [yesterday]
LEFNT[elephant], MODSTA [monster]
PAT [pants], BN [been],
OPN [open]
KR [car], BRZ [birds],
BZR [buzzer]
 Spelling: 3. Letter-name stage

Children break words into phonemes and

choose letters that represent the phonemes
based on the similarity between the sound of
the letter names and the respective phonemes.

TELAFON [telephone]
BABES[babies]
FAKTARES [factories]
 Spelling: 4. Transitional stage.

Children write words that look like English,

although they are not all spelled correctly.
Each syllable typically has a vowel.
Use morphological and visual strategies.
EL instead of L in ELEFANT[elephant]
STRAIT [straight]
MONSTUR for earlier MOSTA [monster]
EIGHTEE for earlier ATEE [eighty]
Spelling: 5. Correct spelling stage.

Children spell nearly all words correctly.

May need support for more difficult words.
 Spelling.

Age continuum:
Prephonemic stage = 3 - 5.
Early phonemic stage = 5 - 6.
Letter-name stage = around 6.
Transitional stage = 7 - 8.
Correct spelling stage = 8 - 9.
Handwriting
How to Teach Handwriting

• Create specific blocks of time to teach

handwriting (in contrast to integrating
handwriting into journal writing time)
• Practice until letter formation is consistent
• Move in a systematic sequence from letters
to words to sentences. Teach each level to
mastery prior to moving on.
• Create multiple opportunities for students to
practice and extend their skills (e.g.,
headings on paper, signing in and out for
bathroom, writing lunch order)
 Handwriting Strategies

• Trace, imitate, and write letters from

memory
• Visualize letters prior to writing
them
• Write letters on lined paper
• Direct work on writing development
(approaches designed to increase
fine motor or visual perception have
not yielded gains in handwriting
development)
Explore Handwriting Technology

• Dictation.io
• Handwriting Worksheet Maker
– http://www.handwritingworksheets.co
m/
 Other Handwriting Supports
• Start Write
– http://www.startwrite.com/
• Write-On Handwriting
– http://www.writeonhandwriting.com/