How do cells reproduce?

Animal Cell Mitosis Animation

 The Cell

ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

 CELL DIVISION

• THE NECESSITY FOR THE PRODUCTION

OF NEW CELLS IN LIVING ORGANISMS

- Cells continuously dividing, growing, and dying.

- Dead cells- need to be replaced with new cells
- New cells- produced from existing cells, through
mitotic cell division.
- Cell division involves;
i) Nuclear division- mitosis/meiosis
ii) Cytoplasmic division- cytokinesis
 MITOSIS
• The process of nuclear division which results in the formation of
two genetically identical nuclei.

• Cells that undergo mitosis:

i) Plants
- Meristematic tissues of root tip and bud tips
- MT are also found in terminal buds, the vascular cambium and cork
cambium
- Active cell division in MT- allows growth and elongation of a plant
to take place at a faster rate
i) Animals
- Growth in every part of the body
- human skin has Malphigian layers – undergo mitotic cell division to
produce new skin cells to replace the dead skin cells
- Malphigian layers also add to skin surface area.
 Replace the dead cells. Ex: skin cells can live only for 2 weeks, after which new cells are
SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS formed through mitosis

Allows damaged cells to be repaired, replaced, or regenerated. Ex: liver cells can
regenerate themselves following an injury through mitosis to replace the damaged or lost
part

Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei with are genetically identical to each
other and to parent nucleus. Each nucleus contains he same number of chromosomes and
the same genetic material as parent cell.

The basis of asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms such as Amoeba sp. The
daughter cells produced- genetically identical to the parent cell. Also called BINARY
FISSION

Increases the number of cells in all living organisms, allowing growth and development
in multicellular organisms.
- in multicellular organisms- zygote divides and grows into two cells,
then 4, 8, and eventually millions of cells
- all cells formed- genetically identical. All cells in in our body- have same
genes, in livetr, brain, etc.
 CHROMOSOMES AND CHROMOSOMAL
NUMBER

• Cells that reproduce sexually can be divided into:

- Somatic cells: comprise all the cells in an organism,
except for the reproductive that are formed through
mitosis
- Gametes/ reproductive cells: formed through
meiosis
• Every cell- has thread-like structure called
chromosomes
• Chromosomal number: number of chromosomes
present in the cells of each species of an individual
organisms- constant.
• All individuals of the same species have the same
chromosomal number, but the cells of individuals of a
different species have a different chromosomal number.

• Ex: onions have 16 chromosomes, Drosophila

melanogaster have 8 chromosomes.

• Chromosomes- exist in pairs- chromosomal number =

diploid (2n). Onions, 2n=16

• Gametes- only half the number of chromosomes or only

one of each pair of chromosomes= haploid (n).

• Human: each set of chromosomes consists of 23

chromosomes.
• Nucleus of a typical human somatic cell has 46
chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs or 2n=46.
 All somatic cells- have two sets of chromosomes: paternal
orgin and maternal origin.
 Diploid number of chromosomes (2n) : the presence of two
sets of chromosomes in the nucleus
 Homologous chromosomes: the two chromosomes in each
pair that have same structural features
 Each member of the pair: homologue
•Both chromosomes of each pair carry genes for the same traits
at the same location. Ex; eye colour, straight hairs

•Diploid cells: cell with two sets of homologous chromosomes

•Haploid cells: cell which contain only one set of chromosomes

• One pair of the 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes in

human- one pair is the sex chromosomes. \
-female: two X chromosomes (XX)
-Male: X and Y chromosomes (XY)

•Each of the gametes contains only one set of chromosomes: one

set of 23 chromosomes= haploid number of chromosomes.
 MITOSIS cont…
• Mitosis- maintains the chromosomal number of species and ensures genetic materials is
passed on to the offspring

• Daughter cell formed through mitosis- receives genetic material inherited from parent cell

• The genetic material, DNA- carried in the chromosomes

• DNA- consists of double helix which contains hundreds and thousand genes.
• Each gene in the chromosomes of a parent cell-
unit of inheritance – must be passed down to its
offspring

• Each daughter cell- contains the same

chromosomal number and genetic material as
the parent cell.

• Mitosis- doubles the number of cells without changing the genetic content of the cell.
Eukaryotic chromosome organization
 When a DNA double helix
replicates, it becomes two
Duplicated chromosomes
DNA double helices. Now, the
in a condensed state.
chromosomes- have duplicated

A chromosome consists of A duplicated chromosome

a DNA double helix - consists of two identicl
sister chromatids.

Each duplicated
chromosomes contains
two identical DNA double
helices. Each sister
chromatid contains a DNA
Sister chromatids separate
double helices
and become independent
daughter chromosomes
during anaphase. Each
chromatid carries an
identical DNA double helix
• A chromosome- consists of DNA molecule and protein
• DNA- carries the genetic material that inherit from their parents
• A DNA molecule- consists of hundreds or thousands of genes.
• Chromatin: when chromosomes are not condensed and visible as
thread-like structures
• During S phase: DNA molecule replicates, forming two identical
DNA double helices- produces a duplicated chromosome with two
sister chromatids.
• Each DNA double helix contained within a sister cromatids
• Two sister chromatids- identical copies of DNA
molecules
• During mitosis- two sister chromatids separate and
each becomes an independent daughter chromosome.
• When cell division begins, the chromatin becomes
condensed, coiled, and folded- the chromosome
become compact and thick.
• Narrow region at the centre- centromere.
CELL CYCLE
 CELL CYCLE cont…

• Divided into two major phases:

a) Interphase (G1, S, G2)
b) M phase or mitotic cell division

• Extends from the time a new cell is produced until the time the
cell completes a division
• Eukaryotic cells divide in one of two ways

– Mitosis
• Occurs in somatic (non-reproductive) cells

– Meiosis
• Occurs in germ (reproductive) cells
• Results in the production of gametes
• The complex cell cycle of eukaryotic cell is composed of
several stages
G1 phase
Primary growth phase
S phase
DNA replication, chromosomes
Interphase are duplicated
G2 phase
Enzymes and proteins are
synthesised

Mitosis
M phase
Mitosis-chromosomes pull apart
C phase
Cytokinesis
Cytoplasm divides
 CELL CYCLE

• In human: continuously 8-24 hrs.

• Divided into:
- Interphase (G1phase, S phase, G2 phase)
- M phase (mitotic cell division)
Fig. 7.10
• Interphase

- 90% of the cell cycle

- cells grow larger and prepare for cell division

- The nucleus is big and well defined

- Chromosomes- not condensed, and are visible as thread like

structure

- A pair of centrosomes (found only in animal) cells- formed

in the cytoplasm

- Each centrosome: consists a pair of centrioles.

• Each pair of centrioles will migrate towards the
opposite poles of the cell, help in the formation
of spindle fibres.

• Sub-phases in interphase:
i) G1 phase (gap/growth phase)
ii)S phase ( DNA synthesis)
iii)G2 phase (gap/ growth phase 2)
 G1 PHASE
• Cell begins to acquire and synthesis the materials required for cell
division. Proteins and new organelles are being synthesised.

• Metabolic rate: high

• Crucial phase: because the cells decide whether or not to divide and
complete the cycle to form new cells

• If external conditions are conducive for growth, cells enter S phase

• During this stage- chromosomes are extremely fine and cannot be

seen under the light microscope. Chromosomes- known as chromatin
 S PHASE

• Synthesis of DNA (genetic materials occur)

• DNA undergo replication

• A duplicated chromosomes consists of two

identical sister chromatids

• Both sister chromatids- contain identical copies of

chromosome’ DNA molecule.
Fig. 7.3
 G2 PHASE

• The cells continues to grow and remains

metabolically active

• Enzymes and proteins are synthesised for cell

division

• Cell- accumulates energy and completes its final

preparations for division
How the cell cycle works
– Interphase
– Mitosis
• Division of the nucleus
– Also termed karyokinesis
• Subdivided into
– Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
– Cytokinesis
• Division of the cytoplasm
– Prophase
• Chromosomes condense and become tightly coiled.
The chromosomes- become shorter, thicker, and
visible under microscope.

• Each cromosome- consists of 2 sister chromatids

joined together at the centromere

• Spindle fibers begin to form between the centrioles.

Each pair- migrates to lie at the opposite poles of the
cell, acts as a central point from which the spindle
fibers radiate. Central point- known as central pole

• Spindle fibres from the opposite spindle poles are

attached to the centromeres of each sister chromatids.

• In plant cell- spindle fibres formed without the

presence of centrioles

• Spindle apparatus is formed

• End of prophase- nucleolus disappears, nuclear

membrane disintegrates
– Metaphase

• The centromeres of all the chromosomes are

lined up on the equator of the cell- called
metaphase plate

• Spindle fibres fully formed

• Chromosomes- arranged randomly at the

metaphase plate.

• The sister chromatids- still attached to each

other at the centromere

• Spindle fibers attach at the kinetochores

• Metaphase end when the centromeres divide

Anaphase
– Sister chromatids of each
chromosome separate at the
centromere.

– Sister chromatids-pulled
apart to the opposite poles by the
shortening of the spindle fibres that
connect the chromosomes to the
poles.

– Once separated, the chromatids

are called daughter chromosomes.

– Anaphase end when- the

chromosomes reach the poles of the
cell
Telophase

Begins when both sets of

chromosomes reach the opposite
poles of the cell.

The chromosomes decondensed,

start to uncoil and revert to their
extended state (chromatin) again.

The spindle fibres disappear and a

new nuclear mebrane forms
around each set of chromosomes

The nucleolus re-forms in each

nucleus

Nuclear envelope reappears

Fig. 7.7
Fig. 7.7
• Cytokinesis= cytoplasmic division

Animal cells
1. Actin filaments – contract to pull
a ring of the plasma membrane
inwards, forming a groove called
cleavage furrow

2. The cleavage furrow pinches at

the equator of the cell

3. The cleavage furrow deepens –

until the cell separates into
two daughter cells
• Plant cells

1. Membrane- enclosed vesicles

collect at the equator between the
two nuclei. The vesicles joined to
form a cell plate

2. The cell plates grows outwards

until its edges fuse with the plasma
membrane. New cell walls and
plasma membranes are formed from
the contents of the cell plate

3. Eventually, the cell plate divides

the cell into two daughter cells.
Cellulose fibres are produced by the
cells to streghthen the new cell
walls.
Animal Cell

Plant Cell
 IMPORTANCE OF CONTROLLED
MITOSIS
– Genetic information- carried by the chromosomes necessary for the proper
functioning of an organism.

– Ensures that genetic content and the number of chromosomes in the parent
cells are maintained in the daughter cells from one generation to the next

– The rate and timing of the cell division is important for normal cell growth,
development, and maintenance.

– Different cells divide at different frequencies. Ex: skin cells- divide

throughout their lifespan. Liver cells- only when necessary to replace
damaged and injured tissues. Nerve and muscle cells do not divide once they
mature.
 EFFECTS OF UNCONTROLLED MITOSIS
– Results- cancer cells. Cancer: a disease caused by uncontrolled mitosis due to
severe disruption to the mechanism that control the cell cycle.
– Cancer cells- divide freely, compete with the surrounding normal cells to
obtain sufficient nutrients and energy for their own growth
– Cancer cell that is not destroyed- divide uncontrollably to form a tumour
– Tumour: an abnormal mass of cells.
– Cancer cells - can intrude on and spread to other tissues which then lead to the
malfunction of the tissues and ultimately death.

– Cancer can be caused by:

• Damage to DNA
• Changes in genes (mutation)
• Ionising radiation. Ex: X-rays, UV rays, gamma rays
• Certain chemical compounds . Ex: tar in tobacco smoke
• Carcinogenic compounds. Ex: formaldehyde
EXAMPLE OF CONTROLLED MITOSIS IN LIVING THINGS

- Regeneration in lower animals:

Ex: an earthworm can regenerate all its portions; a house gecko drops its tail
when its escape from predators and regenerates a new tail ready for the next
encounter.
- Regeneration in human
Ex: limited, mostly happens in the healing of wound and formation of bones

- Regeneration in plants
Ex: sprouts grow from a tree stump and go on to develop new stems, new leaves,
roots.
EXAMPLE OF UNCONTROLLED MITOSIS IN LIVING THINGS

- Benign tumors:
- Abnormal cells that remained constrained at the original site
- No function, but interfere the normal cell activity of healthy cells
- Inactive and harmless, but some may develops into malignant tumors
Treatment: surgery, radiation, chemotherapy

- Malignant tumors
- Consists of cancer cells
- Cell multiply due to uncontrolled mitosis
- Some may destroy neighboring tissues
Fig. 7.13
NORMAL CELLS
Controlled growth
A single organised layer
Cells are differentiated and carry out
specialised functions
The nuclei and number of
chromosomes are normal
CANCER CELLS
Uncontrolled growth
Multi-layered and disorganised
Cells are undifferentiated and do not
have specialised functions.
The nuclei and number of
chromosomes are abnormal