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Introduction to Computing
Chapter 1

The AVR microcontroller

and embedded
systems
using assembly and c

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 Introduction to Computing
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• To understand the software and hardware of a microcontroller-based system, one

must first master some very basic concepts underlying computer architecture.

• The fundamentals is numbering and coding system are presented, and overview of
logic gates is given.

• Numbering and coding Systems

• base 10 (decimal) arithmetic

• base 2 (binary)

• base 16 (Hexadecimal)

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• ASCII
• The discussion so far has revolved around the representation of number systems.
Because all information in the computer must be represented by 0s and 1s, binary
patterns must be assigned to letters and other characters. In the 1960s a standard
representation called ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
was established. The ASCII (pronounced "ask-E") code assigns binary patterns from
numbers 0 to 9, all letters of the English alphabet, both uppercase (capital) and lower
case and many control codes and punctuation marks.

• The ASCII system uses a total of 7 bits to represent each code. For example, 100
0001 is assigned to upper case letter "A" and 110 0001 is for lowercase "a". Often a
zero is placed in the most significant bit position to make it an 8-bit code.

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• Decoders

• Flip flops

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• Capacity
– The number of bits that a memory can store.
• E.g. 128 Kbits, 256 Mbits
• Organization
4 bits
– How the locations are organized 0

128 locations
1
• E.g. a 128 x 4 memory has 128 locations, 2

4 bits each

…
• Access time
127

– How long it takes to get data from memory

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• ROM RAM •
– Mask ROM )Static RAM( SRAM –
– PROM (Programmable )Dynamic RAM( DRAM –
ROM) )Nonvolatile RAM( NV-RAM –
– EPROM (Erasable
PROM)
– EEPROM (Electronic
Erasable PROM)
– Flash EPROM

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• There are three ways to generate a memory block selector:

• (a) using simple logic gates
• (b) using 74LS138
• (c) using Programmable logic such as CPLD and FPGA

• Simple Logic Gates

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• Example of the shown figure shows that A15 - A12 must be 0011 in order to select the
chip. This results in the assignment of addresses 3000H to 3FFFH to this memory chip

• 74LS138 Decoder

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Questions and Answers

END

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