Elements of optical fiber

• The optical fiber consists of three main elements:

• Transmitter: An electric signal is applied to the optical transmitter. The optical transmitter consists
of driver circuit, light source and fiber flylead.
– Driver circuit drives the light source.
– Light source converts electrical signal to optical signal.
– Fiber flylead is used to connect optical signal to optical fiber.
• Transmission channel: It consists of a cable that provides mechanical and environmental
protection to the optical fibers contained inside. Each optical fiber acts as an individual channel.
– Optical splice is used to permanently join two individual optical fibers.
– Optical connector is for temporary non-fixed joints between two individual optical fibers.
– Optical coupler or splitter provides signal to other devices.
– Repeater converts the optical signal into electrical signal using optical receiver and passes it to electronic
circuit where it is reshaped and amplified as it gets attenuated and distorted with increasing distance
because of scattering, absorption and dispersion in waveguides, and this signal is then again converted
into optical signal by the optical transmitter.
• Receiver: Optical signal is applied to the optical receiver. It consists of photo detector, amplifier
and signal restorer.
• Photo detector converts the optical signal to electrical signal.
• Signal restorers and amplifiers are used to improve signal to noise ratio of the signal as there are
chances of noise to be introduced in the signal due to the use of photo detectors.
 Wavelength-division multiplexing

• fiber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is

a technology which multiplexes a number of optical carriersignals onto a
single optical fiber by using different wavelengths (i.e., colors)
of laser light. This technique enables bidirectionalcommunications over
one strand of fiber, as well as multiplication of capacity.
• The term WDM is commonly applied to an optical carrier, which is typically
described by its wavelength, whereas frequency-division
multiplexing typically applies to a radio carrier which is more often
described by frequency. This is purely conventional because wavelength
and frequency communicate the same information. Specifically, frequency
(in Hertz, which is cycles per second) multiplied by wavelength (the
physical length of one cycle) equals the velocity of the carrier wave. In
vacuum, this is the velocity of light, usually denoted by the lower case
letter, c. In glass fiber, it is substantially slower, usually about 0.7 times c.
The data rate, which ideally might be at the carrier frequency, in practical
systems is always a fraction of the carrier frequency
 LEDs: Principle of Operation
• Semiconductors are classified as direct-band gap or indirect-band gap based on
the shape of the band gap as a function of the crystal momentum k. In direct-band
gap materials the maxima of the valence band and the minima of the conduction
band occur at the same value of k. However, in indirect-band gap semiconductors,
the maxima of valence band and the minima of the conduction band occur at
different values of k. In the indirect bandgap semiconductors for electron-hole
recombination to take place it is essential that the electron loses momentum such
that it has a value of momentum corresponding to the maximum energy of the
valence band. The conservation of momentum requires the emission or absorption
of third particle, a phonon. This three particle recombination process is far less
probable than the two particle process exhibited by the direct-band gap
semiconductors. Thus radiative recombination is the simplest and most probable
in direct-band gap semiconductors. Examples of indirect bandgap semiconductors
are Ge and Si which are elemental semiconductors. GaAs, GaN, AlN, InAs, InP, etc
are examples of direct bandgap semiconductors which are III-V compound
semiconductors. LEDs and laser diodes are made out of direct-band gap
semiconductors. A list of some LED and laser diode material mixtures together
with their operating wavelength range and approximate band gap energies
 LED Structures: Homojunctions and
Heterojunctions
• A simple LED may be constructed by forming a pn junction using one of the direct band gap
semiconductors. Such an LED is called a homojunction LED as the pn junction is made the same material.
An LED for use in optical fiber communications must have a high radiance output, a fast emission response
time, and high internal quantum efficiency. Radiance of an LED is a measure, in watts, of the optical power
radiated into a unit solid angle per unit area of the emitting surface. LEDs with higher radiance would be
able to couple higher optical powers into an optical fiber. Higher emission response time ensures high
modulation rates. Internal quantum efficiency is a measure of the fraction of electron-hole pairs that
recombine radiatively.
• Homojunction LEDs are not good from the point of view of high radiance and high quantum efficiency. In
order to have a device with high radiance and high quantum efficiency the LED structure must provide
means of carrier confinement and optical confinement. Carrier confinement would improve the radiance
and internal quantum efficiency. Emitted photons can get absorbed by the surrounding materials, which
can be prevented by better optical confinement.
• Carrier and optical confinement can be achieved by the use of single and double heterojunctions instead
of homojunctions. In a heterojunction pn device the junction is formed out of dissimilar crystalline
semiconductors. These materials have unequal band gaps. A combination of multiple heterojunctions
together in a device is called a heterostructure. It is possible to have both single heterostructures and
double heterostructures. In a heterostructure LED the device has an active region, catering to radiative
recombination, sandwiched between two different alloy layers. These devices achieve carrier confinement
through differences in the band gaps of the adjacent layers. Also, the active region material is chosen such
that its refractive index is higher than the adjacent materials. Because of these differences in the refractive
indices the LED structure acts like a slab waveguide with the active region as the central (core) region. This
achieves optical confinement of the emitted photons.
 LED Characteristics
• i) Light Intensity (Optical Power) vs. Current
• This is a very important characteristic of an LED. It was shown earlier that
the optical power generated by an LED is directly proportional to the
injected current I (current through the LED). However, in practice the
characteristic is generally non-linear, especially at higher currents. The
near-linear light output characteristic of an LED is exploited in small length
fiber optic analog communication links, such as fiber optic closed-circuit
TV.
• ii) Junction Voltage vs. Current
• The junction voltage vs. current characteristic of an LED is similar to the V-I
characteristics of diodes. However, there is one major difference. The knee
voltage of a diode is related to the barrier potential of the material used in
the device. Silicon diodes and bipolar junction transistors are very
commonly used whose knee voltage or junction voltage is about 0.7 V.
Very often it is wrongly assumed that other diodes also have the same
junction voltage. In an LED, depending on the material used its junction
voltage can be anywhere between 1.5 to 2.2 Volts.
 LED materials
•
• Alloys consisting of three elements are called ternary compounds,
and four-element alloys are known as quaternary compounds. A
specific operating wavelength can be selected for AIGaAs, InGaAsP,
and InGaAs devices by varying the proportions of the constituent
atoms. Thus devices can be tailored to emit at a selected
wavelength in the 780-to 850-nm band or in any of the other
transmission bands ranging from 1280 to 1675nm for glass fibers.
• When an external current is passed through a pn junction made of a
direct band gap material the excess minority carriers injected into
the higher energy levels recombine either radiatively or non-
radiatively. Radiative recombination gives rise to emission of light,
each photon releasing energy of hν . In non-radiative recombination
the released energy is dissipated in the form of heat.
 LASERS
• Lasers derive their name from the acronym for light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, and
are commonly used optical components. Because the
light in a laser beam can be either continuous or
pulsed, and is usually coherent unlike other light
beams, they have numerous distinct applications. A
laser beam’s spatial coherence can vary, with some
beams occupying a very narrow spectrum while others
occupy a broader wavelength. Just as the coherence of
laser’s light can be different, there are also various
modes of operation that optimize a laser’s
performance for certain applications.
 Modes of Operation
• Continuous Wave Operation (CW)
• In continuous wave operation mode, the laser’s output of light is relatively
constant, and is maintained by a pump source. Because the output is
continuous, this mode of operation is also known as free-running.

• Pulsed Operation
• Pulsed operation mode occurs when the laser pulses on and off, releasing
light in concentrated beams for a short period of time. Often this method
is used to focus energy on a particular region of a substrate, and to
achieve the desired results as quickly as possible. If the laser is left on, as
in continuous wave operation, the heat from the laser may move
throughout the entire substrate rather than staying in one particular
location. There are several different modes associated with pulse
operation, including Q-switching, mode-locking, and pulsed pumping.
 The Basics of Semiconductor Optical
Amplifier (SOA)
• 1310 nm, 1400 nm, 1550 nm and 1610 nm wavelength
selectable
• A high fiber-to-fiber gain of 20 dB
• Up to 16 dBm output
• 1 MHz with 10 ns pulse width (optional)
• PM Panda fiber input/output (optional)
• Similar to lasers, but with non-reflecting ends and broad
wavelength emission
• Incoming optical signal stimulates emission of light at its
own wavelength
• The process continues through the cavity to amplify the
signal
Working principle of SOA amplifier
• The basic working principle of an SOA is the
same as a semiconductor laser but without
feedback. SOAs amplify incident light through
stimulated emission. When the light traveling
through the active region, it causes these
electrons to lose energy in the form of
photons and get back to the ground state.
Those stimulated photons have the same
wavelength as the optical signal, thus
amplifying the optical signal.
• A semiconductor optical amplifier works in a similar way to a basic laser. The
structure is much the same, with two specially designed slabs of semiconductor
material on top of each other, with another material in between them forming the
“active layer.” An electrical current is set running through the device in order to
excite electrons, which can then fall back to the non-excited ground state and give
out photons (“particles” of light).
But there are two key differences. In a standard laser we want very reflective ends
to keep light bouncing back and forth within the cavity. So the laser car has a rear-
view mirror. With a semiconductor amplifier we need to get the optical signals
straight into the cavity and then straight back out again, so we want to avoid light
reflecting back into the cavity. This means that we do not want mirrors on the
ends, and a semiconductor optical amplifier car has fuzzy dice obscuring the rear-
view mirror. Also, in lasers we only want to get light out at one specific
wavelength, and we design the device to make this possible (especially in
Distributed Feedback —DFB — lasers). In a semiconductor amplifier we want to
amplify light at as many wavelengths as possible. This is because we will have an
incoming optical network signal that may have many different wavelengths that all
need to be amplified at the same time.
 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA)

• Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA) is an optical amplifier used in the C-

band and L-band, where the loss of telecom optical fibers becomes lowest
in the entire optical telecommunication wavelength bands. Invented in
1987 [1], an EDFA is now most commonly used to compensate the loss of
an optical fiber in long-distance optical communication. Another
important characteristic is that EDFA can amplify multiple optical signals
simultaneously, and thus can be easily combined
with WDM technologyEDFAs are used as a booster, inline, and pre-
amplifier in an optical transmission line, as schematically shown in Figure
2. The booster amplifier is placed just after the transmitter to increase the
optical power launched to the transmission line. The inline amplifiers are
placed in the transmission line, compensating the attenuation induced by
the optical fiber. The pre-amplifier is placed just before the receiver, such
that sufficient optical power is launched to the receiver. A typical distance
between each of the EDFAs is several tens of kilometers.
 Working principle

• When an EDFA is pumped at 1480 nm, Er ion doped in the fiber absorbs
the pump light and is excited to an excited state (Excited state 1 in Figure
3). When sufficient pump power is launched to the fiber and population
inversion is created between the ground state and Excited state 1,
amplification by stimulated emission takes place at around 1550 nm.
When an EDFA is pumped at 980 nm, Er ion absorbs the pump light and is
excited to another excited state (Excited state 2 in Figure 3). The lifetime
of the Excited state 2 is relatively short, and as a result, the Er ion is
immediately relaxed to the Excited state 1 by radiating heat (i.e. no photon
emission). This relaxation process creates a population
inversion between the ground level and Excited state 1, and amplification
takes place at around 1550 nm.
• Since the first demonstration of a diode-pumped EDFA in 1989 [2],
intensive effort has been made to make the pump LD highly reliable. Now
high-power pump laser diodes at 980 nm or 1480 nm are both
commercially available, and most EDFAs are pumped by laser diodes due
to the compactness and robustness.
 Key optical characteristics

• (1) Saturated output power (or simply maximum output power)

Saturated output power is the maximum output power from an amplifier when sufficient signal input power
(typically around 0 dBm or higher) is launched to the amplifier. A booster amplifier typically operates under this
condition, and thus saturated output power is an important characteristic for a booster amplifier.
• (2) Small-signal gain
Small-signal gain is the gain in an amplifier when the signal power launched to the amplifier is very small (typically
around -30 dBm). A pre-amplifier typically operates under this condition, and thus small-signal gain is an
important characteristic for a pre-amplifier.
• (3) Noise figure
Amplification by an EDFA adds some noise to the original signal – mainly due to amplified spontaneous emission
(ASE) from the EDF – and thus decreases the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N ratio). Noise figure (NF) of an optical
amplifier is a measure of degradation in the S/N ratio, expressed in dB, and lower NF indicates lower noise
characteristic (theoretical minimum 3 dB). In general, ASE grows fast when the signal input power is low, thus NF is
an important characteristic for a pre-amplifier (i.e. small input power). On the other hand, ASE is well suppressed
when the signal input power is high, and the NF value measured at a higher input power has little importance. A
typical NF value of commercial EDFA at a small signal input power is within the range of 5 to 7 dB.
• (4) Gain flatness
When an EDFA is used for wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) transmission, it would be ideal that all the
WDM channels have equal gain. In reality, however, each of the channels has a different gain value and the
variation is referred to as the gain flatness. Gain flatness is particularly important when many EDFAs are
concatenated in an optical transmission line (e.g. submarine optical transmission), as the gain variation is
accumulated in the EDFA chains and results in large signal power differences between the WDM channels. Gain
flatness can be improved by, for example, modification of glass composition of the EDF (higher aluminium
concentration) or the incorporation of an external gain-flattening optical filter.
 Raman Amplifiers

• Raman amplifier is an optical amplifier based

on Raman gain, which results from the effect of
stimulated Raman scattering. The Raman-active
medium is often an optical fiber, although it can also
be a bulk crystal, a waveguide in a photonic integrated
circuit, or a cell with a gas or liquid medium. An input
signal can be amplified while co- or
counterpropagating with a pump beam, the
wavelength of which is typically a few tens of
nanometers shorter. For silica fibers, maximum gain is
obtained for a frequency offset of ≈ 10–15 THz
between pump and signal, depending on the
composition of the fiber core.
• Raman amplifiers can be operated in very different wavelength regions, provided
that a suitable pump source is available.
• The gain spectrum can be tailored by using different pump wavelengths
simultaneously.
• A Raman amplifier requires high pump power (possibly raising laser safety issues)
and high pump brightness, but it can also generate high output powers.
• A greater length of fiber is required. However, the transmission fiber in a telecom
system may be used, so that no additional fiber is required.
• Raman fiber amplifiers can have a lower noise figure. On the other hand, they
more directly couple pump noise to the signal than laser amplifiers do.
• They also have a fast reaction to changes of the pump power, particularly for co-
propagating pump, and very different saturation characteristics.
• If the pump wavelength is polarized, the Raman gain is polarization-dependent.
This effect is often unwanted, but can be suppressed e.g. by using two
polarization-coupled pump diodes or a pump depolarizer.
 WIDEBAND OPTICAL AMPLIFIERS
• wideband optical amplifier for amplifying an input optical signal of
known wavelength in one of at least two bands of wavelength has a
significantly small number of optical components and thus is low
cost. The wideband optical amplifier includes: a first set of a first
optical coupler, a first pump light source, and a first erbium doped
optical fiber (EDF) which is excited by the first pump light source; an
optical switch for changing an output signal of the first set; and a
second set of a second optical coupler, a second pump light source,
and a second EDF which is excited by the second pump light source.
The first set amplifies a first band of optical signal while a series
connection of the first set and the second set amplifies a second
band of optical signal. In another aspect, a wideband variable
wavelength optical source is achieved by utilizing the wideband
optical amplifier described above within a closed loop
 Dense WDM

• Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) refers originally to optical

signals multiplexed within the 1550 nm band so as to leverage the
capabilities (and cost) of erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs), which are
effective for wavelengths between approximately 1525–1565 nm (C band),
or 1570–1610 nm (L band). EDFAs were originally developed to
replace SONET/SDH optical-electrical-optical (OEO) regenerators, which
they have made practically obsolete. EDFAs can amplify any optical signal
in their operating range, regardless of the modulated bit rate. In terms of
multi-wavelength signals, so long as the EDFA has enough pump energy
available to it, it can amplify as many optical signals as can be multiplexed
into its amplification band (though signal densities are limited by choice of
modulation format). EDFAs therefore allow a single-channel optical link to
be upgraded in bit rate by replacing only equipment at the ends of the
link, while retaining the existing EDFA or series of EDFAs through a long
haul route. Furthermore, single-wavelength links using EDFAs can similarly
be upgraded to WDM links at reasonable cost. The EDFA's cost is thus
leveraged across as many channels as can be multiplexed into the
1550 nm band.
• A DWDM terminal multiplexer. The terminal multiplexer contains a wavelength-converting transponder for
each data signal, an optical multiplexer and where necessary an optical amplifier (EDFA). Each wavelength-
converting transponder receives an optical data signal from the client-layer, such as Synchronous optical
networking [SONET /SDH] or another type of data signal, converts this signal into the electrical domain and re-
transmits the signal at a specific wavelength using a 1,550 nm band laser. These data signals are then combined
together into a multi-wavelength optical signal using an optical multiplexer, for transmission over a single fiber
(e.g., SMF-28 fiber). The terminal multiplexer may or may not also include a local transmit EDFA for power
amplification of the multi-wavelength optical signal. In the mid-1990s DWDM systems contained 4 or 8
wavelength-converting transponders; by 2000 or so, commercial systems capable of carrying 128 signals were
available.
• An intermediate line repeater is placed approximately every 80–100 km to compensate for the loss of optical
power as the signal travels along the fiber. The 'multi-wavelength optical signal' is amplified by an EDFA, which
usually consists of several amplifier stages.
• An intermediate optical terminal, or optical add-drop multiplexer. This is a remote amplification site that
amplifies the multi-wavelength signal that may have traversed up to 140 km or more before reaching the
remote site. Optical diagnostics and telemetry are often extracted or inserted at such a site, to allow for
localization of any fiber breaks or signal impairments. In more sophisticated systems (which are no longer point-
to-point), several signals out of the multi-wavelength optical signal may be removed and dropped locally.
• A DWDM terminal demultiplexer. At the remote site, the terminal de-multiplexer consisting of an optical de-
multiplexer and one or more wavelength-converting transponders separates the multi-wavelength optical signal
back into individual data signals and outputs them on separate fibers for client-layer systems (such
as SONET/SDH). Originally, this de-multiplexing was performed entirely passively, except for some telemetry, as
most SONET systems can receive 1,550 nm signals. However, in order to allow for transmission to remote client-
layer systems (and to allow for digital domain signal integrity determination) such de-multiplexed signals are
usually sent to O/E/O output transponders prior to being relayed to their client-layer systems. Often, the
functionality of output transponder has been integrated into that of input transponder, so that most
commercial systems have transponders that support bi-directional interfaces on both their 1,550 nm (i.e.,
internal) side, and external (i.e., client-facing) side. Transponders in some systems supporting 40 GHz nominal
operation may also perform forward error correction (FEC) via digital wrapper technology, as described in
the ITU-T G.709standard.
 SONET/SDH
• Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are
standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using
lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Lower data rates can also be transferred via an electrical
interface. The method was developed to replace the Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) system
for transporting larger amounts of telephone calls and data traffic over the same fiber without
synchronization problems. SONET generic criteria are detailed in Telcordia Technologies Generic
Requirements document GR-253-CORE.Generic criteria applicable to SONET and other transmission
systems (e.g., asynchronous fiber optic systems or digital radio systems) are found in Telcordia GR-
499-CORE.
• SONET and SDH, which are essentially the same, were originally designed to transport circuit mode
communications (e.g., DS1, DS3) from a variety of different sources, but they were primarily
designed to support real-time, uncompressed, circuit-switched voice encoded in PCM format.The
primary difficulty in doing this prior to SONET/SDH was that the synchronization sources of these
various circuits were different. This meant that each circuit was actually operating at a slightly
different rate and with different phase. SONET/SDH allowed for the simultaneous transport of many
different circuits of differing origin within a single framing protocol. SONET/SDH is not itself a
communications protocol per se, but a transport protocol.
• Due to SONET/SDH's essential protocol neutrality and transport-oriented features, SONET/SDH was
the obvious choice for transporting Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) frames. It quickly evolved
mapping structures and concatenated payload containers to transport ATM connections. In other
words, for ATM (and eventually other protocols such as Ethernet), the internal complex structure
previously used to transport circuit-oriented connections was removed and replaced with a large
and concatenated frame (such as OC-3c) into which ATM cells, IP packets, or Ethernet frames are
placed
 Optical switch
• Optical switching refers to a phenomenon in which transmission of an optical
field through a device is switched among two or more possible states by optical
means. In the case of nonlinear optical switching, the device transmission is
intensity-dependent such that the optical beam itself induces switching
depending on its intensity. SPM occurring in an optical fiber is well suited for this
application and its use results in all-fiber devices capable of switching on
a femtosecond time scale (Islam 1992).
• An optical switch is a device that selectively switches optical signals on or off or
from one channel to another. The former is known as an optical (time-domain)
switch or an optical modulator, while the latter is called an optical space switch
or an optical router. Since the switching can be temporal or spatial, such switches
are analogous to one-way or two-way switches in electrical circuits. In general,
optical modulators and routers can be made from each other.
• An optical switch may operate by mechanical means, such as physically shifting
an optical fiber to drive one or more alternative fibers, or by electro-optic
effects, magneto-optic effects, or other methods. Slow optical switches, such as
those using moving fibers, may be used for alternate routing of an optical
switch transmission path, such as routing around a fault. Fast optical switches,
such as those using electro-optic or magneto-optic effects, may be used to
perform logic operations; also included in this category are semiconductoroptical
amplifiers, which are optoelectronic devices that can be used as optical switches
and be integrated with discrete or integrated microelectronic circuits.
 Optical Couplers

• An optical coupler is a component to couple the light from

an optical fiber to the waveguide and vice versa. There are
two kinds of coupling mechanism used in photonics: in-line
coupling and vertical coupling. An edge couple is used for
in-line coupling, where grating coupler is a commonly used
component for vertical coupling. Fig. 7.6(A) and (B)shows
schematic of the edge and grating coupler for in-line and
vertical, respectively. In general, the single-mode fiber has
a core diameter of 8–10 µm and cladding diameter of
125 µm with a mode field diameter (MFD) of ~10.5 µm. The
MFD is that at which the power density is reduced to
1/e2 of the maximum power density. For our simulation, we
use this parameter to estimate the coupling efficiency from
the fiber to the waveguide
 Edge Coupler

• Edge coupler is the commonly used method to couple the light as it allows
to couple both TE and TM polarizations with a wide range of wavelength
bandwidth. Fig. 7.6(A) shows schematic of an edge coupler. The optical
loss during coupling the light from a single-mode fiber to a single-mode
waveguide is known as coupling loss. The coupling loss depends on modal
shape mismatch between the fiber and waveguide. From Fig. 7.7, we see
that the MFD became smaller as the index contrast of the waveguide
increased, which increased the modal shape mismatch with fiber mode,
and hence the coupling loss increased. The simulated coupling loss
between 10.5 µm MFD fiber and single-mode silica waveguide (Fig. 7.7(B))
is 1.4 dB, silicon nitride waveguide is 10 dB, and SOI waveguide is 20 dB.
Several research has been conducted to improve these coupling losses.
For low index contrast waveguide like silica, the coupling loss can be
improved to below 0.5 dB just by increasing the waveguide width
adiabatically (positive taper waveguide).
•
 Grating Coupler

• A wafer scale testing is not possible with an edge coupler.

Therefore, there is a need to develop vertical coupling
mechanism. Fig. 7.6(B)shows schematic of vertical coupling from an
optical fiber to a waveguide using a grating coupler. A grating
coupler consists of periodic etch structures to diffract the light in a
certain direction. One of the advantages of the grating coupler is
that it requires less amount of space of the chip as it does not
require to route the waveguide at the edge of the chip. But the
coupling efficiency is very poor for a grating coupler. In 2012,
Taillaert et al. [6] demonstrated a grating coupler with 7 dB coupling
loss for SOI platform. There are three main contributors behind this
high coupling loss: diffraction toward the substrate, mode
mismatches between the fiber mode and diffracted mode, and
second order Bragg diffraction. The last loss contribution can be
minimized by placing the fiber with an angle, as shown in Fig.
7.11(A).
 Applications of Tunable Filters
• Tunable bandpass filters can be used in various fields; some examples:
• One can realize a broadband tunable light source by combining some kind
of white light source(for example, a supercontinuum source) with a
monochromator. Compared with a tunable laser, one can cover a
significantly wider wavelength region. However, there is a trade-off
concerning the transmission bandwidth: the smaller the wanted
bandwidth, the lower the power throughput.
• One can build a scanning spectrometer, where the reflected power is
monitored while the wavelength range is scanned.
• Compact tunable bandpass filters are suitable for use in optical fiber
communications, particularly in the context of wavelength division
multiplexing: one may, for example, realize add–drop multiplexers which
can inject or eject specific wavelength channels.
• There are also applications in the area of fiber-optic sensors.
• Another possibility is to make wavelength-swept lasers, as required e.g.
for optical coherence tomography.
 optical add-drop multiplexer

• An optical add-drop multiplexer (OADM) is a device used in wavelength-division

multiplexing systems for multiplexing and routing different channels of light into or
out of a single mode fiber (SMF). This is a type of optical node, which is generally
used for the formation and the construction of
optical telecommunicationsnetworks. "Add" and "drop" here refer to the
capability of the device to add one or more new wavelength channels to an
existing multi-wavelength WDM signal, and/or to drop (remove) one or more
channels, passing those signals to another network path. An OADM may be
considered to be a specific type of optical cross-connect.
• traditional OADM consists of three stages: an optical demultiplexer, an
optical multiplexer, and between them a method of reconfiguring the paths
between the demultiplexer, the multiplexer and a set of ports for adding and
dropping signals. The demultiplexer separates wavelengths in an input fiber onto
ports. The reconfiguration can be achieved by a fiber patch panel or by optical
switches which direct the wavelengths to the multiplexer or to drop ports. The
multiplexer multiplexes the wavelength channels that are to continue on from
demultiplexer ports with those from the add ports, onto a single output fiber.
 Different Types of OADM

• Fixed Optical Add-Drop Multiplexers

• FOADMs were originally developed to improve the delivery
of "express" traffic through networks, without requiring
expensive OEO regeneration. FOADMs use fixed filters that
add/drop a selected wavelength "band" and pass the rest
of the wavelengths through the node. Static wavelength-
filtering technology eliminates the cost and attenuation to
demultiplex all DWDM signals in a signal path. The solution
is called FOADM because the wavelength(s) added and
dropped are fixed at the time of add/drop filter installation
on the optical path through a node. No additional filters
can be added without interrupting express wavelengths
traveling through the node.
• Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop Multiplexers
• ROADMs were developed to provide flexibility in rerouting optical
streams, bypassing faulty connections, allowing minimal service
disruption and the ability to adapt or upgrade the optical network
to different WDM technologies. It uses a Wavelength Selective
Switch (WSS). The WSS has an 8-dimensional cross-connect and
provides quick service start-up, remote cross-connect and WDM
mesh networking. The ROADM scheme also allows inputting or
outputting a single wavelength or wavelength group via the fixed
port. In ROADM systems, we don’t need to convert the optical
signals to electrical signals and route those signals by using
conventional electronic switches then convert back again to optical
signals just like FOADM does. ROADM can configure as required
without affecting traffic.
•
 Application of OADM

• In conventional long-haul transmission systems, emphasis has been placed

on how much capacity and how far the system can transmit. In
metro/access networks, however, low cost and system flexibility are
strongly required. OADM has a business in the middle of choice. Of course,
the main battlefield of application is MAN (metropolitan area network).
That can be working flexibility, easy to upgrade and amplify the network.
As an ideal multi-services transport platform in MAN application, OADM
allows different optical network of different wavelength multiplexing
signal at different locations. Another application for OADM is in Optical
Cross Connection (OXC). Propsed equipment allow different network
connect dynamic. On-demand wavelength resources, a wider range of
network interconnection. OADM and OXC only need to download the
information in the nodes to send a person to handle the equipment,
including ATM switchboard, SDH switchboard, IP router etc., which greatly
improve the efficiency of the node to process information.
 Arrayed waveguide gratings (AWG)
• Arrayed waveguide gratings (AWG) are commonly used as optical
(de)multiplexers in wavelength division multiplexed (WDM) systems.
These devices are capable of multiplexingmany wavelengths into a
single optical fiber, thereby increasing the transmission capacity of optical
networks considerably.
• The devices are based on a fundamental principle of optics that light
waves of different wavelengths do not interfere linearly with each other.
This means that, if each channel in an optical communication network
makes use of light of a slightly different wavelength, then the light from
many of these channels can be carried by a single optical fiber with
negligible crosstalk between the channels. The AWGs are used to
multiplex channels of several wavelengths onto a single optical fiber at the
transmission end and are also used as demultiplexers to retrieve individual
channels of different wavelengths at the receiving end of an optical
communication network.
Arrayed-waveguide gratings (AWG) are based on the principles of diffractions.
An AWG device is sometimes called an optical waveguide, a waveguide grating
router, a phase array, or a phasar. An AWG device consists of an array of curved-
channel waveguides with a fixed difference in the length of optical path between
the adjacent channels.
An arrayed waveguide grating (AWG) is a generalization of the Mach-Zehnder
interferometer. This device is illustrated in the following figure.
It combines two NxM star couplers through an array of M waveguides whose
lengths are chosen in such a way that the length difference δl between any two
neighboring waveguides is constant. As a result, the phase difference between
two neighboring waveguides is also constant as an input signal propagates
through it.
 >> HOW DOES AWG WORK?

• The wavelength dependence of an AWG can be understood

in simple physical terms as follows. Consider a WDM signal
consisting of multiple channels at different wavelengths
with a constant channel spacing Δν. When this signal is
launched into one of the input waveguides, the first star
coupler splits its power into many parts and directs them
into the waveguides forming the grating. At the output end
of the grating array, the wavefront is tilted because of
linearly varying phase shifts in waveguides of different
lengths. The tilt is wavelength-dependent and it forces each
channel to focus on a different output waveguide of the
second coupler. This behavior is similar to a bulk grating
that also directs different wavelengths to different
locations.
 Optical circulator

• optical circulator is a three- or four-port optical device designed such

that light entering any port exits from the next. This means that if light enters port
1 it is emitted from port 2, but if some of the emitted light is reflected back to the
circulator, it does not come out of port 1 but instead exits from port 3. This is
analogous to the operation of an electronic circulator. Fiber-optic circulators are
used to separate optical signals that travel in opposite directions in an optical fiber,
for example to achieve bi-directional transmission over a single fiber.[1] Because of
their high isolation of the input and reflected optical powers and their
low insertion loss, optical circulators are widely used in advanced communication
systems and fiber-optic sensor applications.
• Optical circulators are non-reciprocal optics, which means that changes in the
properties of light passing through the device are not reversed when the light
passes through in the opposite direction. This can only happen when the
symmetry of the system is broken, for example by an external magnetic field.
A Faraday rotator is another example of a non-reciprocal optical device, and
indeed it is possible to construct an optical circulator based on a Faraday rotator
 Optical attenuator

• An optical attenuator, or fiber optic attenuator, is a device used to

reduce the power level of an optical signal, either in free space or in
an optical fiber. The basic types of optical attenuators are fixed,
step-wise variable, and continuously variable.
• The power reduction is done by such means as absorption,
reflection, diffusion, scattering, deflection, diffraction, and
dispersion, etc. Optical attenuators usually work by absorbing the
light, like sunglasses absorb extra light energy. They typically have a
working wavelength range in which they absorb all light energy
equally. They should not reflect the light or scatter the light in an air
gap, since that could cause unwanted back reflection in the fiber
system. Another type of attenuator utilizes a length of high-loss
optical fiber, that operates upon its input optical signal power level
in such a way that its output signal power level is less than the input
level.
 Types

• Fixed Attenuators[edit]
• Fixed optical attenuators used in fiber optic systems may use a variety of
principles for their functioning. Preferred attenuators use either doped
fibers, or mis-aligned splices,or total power since both of these are
reliable and inexpensive. Inline style attenuators are incorporated into
patch cables. The alternative build out style attenuator is a small male-
female adapter that can be added onto other cables.[4]
• Non-preferred attenuators often use gap loss or reflective principles. Such
devices can be sensitive to: modal distribution, wavelength,
contamination, vibration, temperature, damage due to power bursts, may
cause back reflections, may cause signal dispersion etc.
• Loopback attenuators[edit]
• Loopback fiber optic attenuator is designed for testing, engineering and
the burn-in stage of boards or other equipment. Available in SC/UPC,
SC/APC, LC/UPC, LC/APC, MTRJ, MPO for singlemode application.900um
fiber cable inside of the black shell for LC and SC type. No black shell for
MTRJ and MPO type.[5]
• Built-in variable attenuators[edit]
• Built-in variable optical attenuators may be either manually or electrically controlled. A manual
device is useful for one-time set up of a system, and is a near-equivalent to a fixed attenuator, and
may be referred to as an "adjustable attenuator". In contrast, an electrically controlled attenuator
can provide adaptive power optimization.
• Attributes of merit for electrically controlled devices, include speed of response and avoiding
degradation of the transmitted signal. Dynamic range is usually quite restricted, and power
feedback may mean that long term stability is a relatively minor issue. Speed of response is a
particularly major issue in dynamically reconfigurable systems, where a delay of one millionth of a
second can result in the loss of large amounts of transmitted data. Typical technologies employed
for high speed response include liquid crystal variable attenuator(LCVA), or lithium niobate devices.
There is a class of built-in attenuators that is technically indistinguishable from test attenuators,
except they are packaged for rack mounting, and have no test display.
• Variable optical test attenuators[edit]
• Variable optical test attenuators generally use a variable neutral density filter. Despite relatively
high cost, this arrangement has the advantages of being stable, wavelength insensitive, mode
insensitive, and offering a large dynamic range. Other schemes such as LCD, variable air gap etc.
have been tried over the years, but with limited success.
• They may be either manually or motor controlled. Motor control give regular users a distinct
productivity advantage, since commonly used test sequences can be run automatically.
• Attenuator instrument calibration is a major issue. The user typically would like an absolute port to
port calibration. Also, calibration should usually be at a number of wavelengths and power levels,
since the device is not always linear. However a number of instruments do not in fact offer these
basic features, presumably in an attempt to reduce cost. The most accurate variable attenuator
instruments have thousands of calibration points, resulting in excellent overall accuracy in use.
 optical cross-connect
• An optical cross-connect (OXC) is a device used by telecommunications carriers
to switch high-speed optical signals in a fiber optic network, such as an optical
mesh network. Opaque OXCs (electronic switching) - One can implement an OXC in
the electronic domain: all the input optical signals are converted into electronic
signals after they are demultiplexed by demultiplexers. The electronic signals are
then switched by an electronic switch module. Finally the switched electronic
signals are converted back into optical signals by using them
to modulate lasers and then the resulting optical signals are multiplexed by
optical multiplexers onto outlet optical fibers. This is known as an "OEO" (Optical-
Electrical-Optical) design. Cross-connects based on an OEO switching process
generally have a key limitation: the electronic circuits limit the
maximum bandwidth of the signal. Such an architecture prevents an OXC from
performing with the same speed as an all-optical cross-connect, and is
not transparent to the network protocols used. On the other hand, it is easy to
monitor signal quality in an OEO device, since everything is converted back to the
electronic format at the switch node. An additional advantage is that the optical
signals are regenerated, so they leave the node free of dispersion and attenuation.
An electronic OXC is also called an opaque OXC.
• Transparent OXCs (optical switching) - Switching optical signals in an all-optical device is the second
approach to realize an OXC. Such a switch is often called a transparent OXC or photonic cross-
connect (PXC). Specifically, optical signals are demultiplexed, then the demultiplexed wavelengths
are switched by optical switch modules. After switching, the optical signals are multiplexed onto
output fibers by optical multiplexers. Such a switch architecture keeps the features of data rate and
protocol transparency. However, because the signals are kept in the optical format, the transparent
OXC architecture does not allow easy optical signal quality monitoring.
• Translucent OXCs (optical and electronic switching) - As a compromise between opaque and
transparent OXC's, there is a type of OXC called a translucent OXC. In such a switch architecture,
there is a switch stage which consists of an optical switch module and an electronic switch module.
Optical signals passing through the switch stage can be switched either by the optical switch
module or the electronic switch module. In most cases, the optical switch module is preferred for
the purpose of transparency. When the optical switch module's switching interfaces are all busy or
an optical signal needs signal regeneration through an OEO conversion process, the electronic
module is used. Translucent OXC nodes provide a compromise of full optical signal transparency
and comprehensive optical signal monitoring. It also provides the possibility of signal regeneration
at each node.
 WAVELENGTH CONVERTERS
• It is a device that converts the data from one
incoming wavelength to another wavelength
• They enable optical channels to be relocated
• Wavelenth converters are useful because
• Data may enter the network of a wavelength
that is not suitable
• For utilization of the available wavelength
 Types
• Optoelectronic approach
• Optical gating-cross gain modulation
• Four wave mixing
 Mach–Zehnder interferometer
• the Mach–Zehnder interferometer is a device used to determine the
relative phase shift variations between two collimatedbeams derived by splitting
light from a single source. The interferometer has been used, among other things,
to measure phase shifts between the two beams caused by a sample or a change
in length of one of the paths. The apparatus is named after the physicists Ludwig
Mach (the son of Ernst Mach) and Ludwig Zehnder: Zehnder's proposal in an 1891
article[1] was refined by Mach in an 1892 article.[Mach–Zehnder interferometers
are used in electro-optic modulators, electronic devices used in various fiber-optic
communication applications. Mach–Zehnder modulators are incorporated in
monolithic integrated circuits and offer well-behaved, high-bandwidth electro-
optic amplitude and phase responses over a multiple-gigahertz frequency range.
• Mach–Zehnder interferometers are also used to study one of the most
counterintuitive predictions of quantum mechanics, the phenomenon known
as quantum entanglement.[8][9]
• The possibility to easily control the features of the light in the reference channel
without disturbing the light in the object channel popularized the Mach–Zehnder
configuration in holographic interferometry. In particular, optical heterodyne
detection with an off-axis, frequency-shifted reference beam ensures good
experimental conditions for shot-noise limited holography with video-rate
cameras,[10] vibrometry,[11] and laser Doppler imaging of blood flow.[1
 How it works
• A collimated beam is split by a half-silvered mirror. The two resulting beams (the "sample beam"
and the "reference beam") are each reflected by a mirror. The two beams then pass a second half-
silvered mirror and enter two detectors. Fresnel equations for reflection and transmission of a
wave at a dielectric imply that there is a phase change for a reflection, when a wave propagating in
a lower-refractive indexmedium reflects from a higher-refractive index medium, but not in the
opposite case.
• A 180° phase shift occurs upon reflection from the front of a mirror, since the medium behind the
mirror (glass) has a higher refractive index than the medium the light is traveling in (air). No phase
shift accompanies a rear-surface reflection, since the medium behind the mirror (air) has a lower
refractive index than the medium the light is traveling in (glass).
• The speed of light is lower in media with an index of refraction greater than that of a vacuum,
which is 1. Specifically, its speed is: v = c/n, where c is the speed of light in vacuum, and n is the
index of refraction. This causes a phase shift increase proportional to (n − 1) × length traveled. If k is
the constant phase shift incurred by passing through a glass plate on which a mirror resides, a total
of 2k phase shift occurs when reflecting from the rear of a mirror. This is because light traveling
toward the rear of a mirror will enter the glass plate, incurring k phase shift, and then reflect from
the mirror with no additional phase shift, since only air is now behind the mirror, and travel again
back through the glass plate, incurring an additional k phase shift.
• The rule about phase shifts applies to beamsplitters constructed with a dielectric coating and must
be modified if a metallic coating is used or when different polarizations are taken into account.
Also, in real interferometers, the thicknesses of the beamsplitters may differ, and the path lengths
are not necessarily equal. Regardless, in the absence of absorption, conservation of energy
guarantees that the two paths must differ by a half-wavelength phase shift. Also note that
beamsplitters that are not 50/50 are frequently employed to improve the interferometer's
performance in certain types of measurement.[3]
• important two-waveguide modulator is based on the waveguideversion of
the Mach–Zehnder interferometer. The basic features of this modulator
are shown schematically in Figure 8.12. Light is coupled into a single-mode
waveguide and divided into two equal beams by a
waveguide beamsplitter. These beams travel through two single-mode
guides which recombine into an output single-mode guide. The output
intensity arises from interference of phase coherent light waves that have
travelled over different paths. Ideally, the path lengths and guide
characteristics are identical, so that the output will consist of the same
unique mode as in the input guide. When an appropriate electric field is
applied to one of the paths, a phase change of π radians is introduced
between the two arms. The recombination results in a field distribution
which is zero at the centre of the output guide and corresponds to the first
order m = 1 mode. In a single-mode guide this mode quickly dissipates by
substrate radiation. The modulator can be, then, switched from a
transmitting to a nontransmitting state by a voltage application.
 What is an OTDR?
• An Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) is a fiber
optic instrument used to characterize, troubleshoot and
maintain optical telecommunication networks. OTDR
testing is performed by transmitting and analyzing pulsed
laser light traveling through an optical fiber. The
measurement is said to be unidirectional as the light is
insert at extremity of a fiber optic cable link.
• Using information obtained from the resultant light
signature reflected or scattered back to the point of origin,
the OTDR acts as an optical radar system, providing the
user with detailed information on the location and overall
condition of splices, connections, defects and other
features of interest.
 OTDR Working Principles

• An OTDR contains a laser diode source, a

photodiode detector and a highly accurate timing
circuit (or time base). The laser emits a pulse of
light at a specific wavelength, this pulse of light
travels along the fiber being tested, as the pulse
moves down the fiber portions of the transmitted
light are reflected/refracted or scattered back
down the fiber to the photo detector in the
OTDR. The intensity of this returning light and the
time taken for it to arrive back at the detector
tells us the loss value (insertion and reflection),
type and location of an event in the fiber link.
 Eye pattern

• In telecommunication, an eye pattern, also known as

an eye diagram, is an oscilloscope display in which
a digital signal from a receiver is repetitively sampled
and applied to the vertical input, while the data rate is
used to trigger the horizontal sweep. It is so called
because, for several types of coding, the pattern looks
like a series of eyes between a pair of rails. It is a tool
for the evaluation of the combined effects of channel
noise and intersymbol interference on the performance
of a baseband pulse-transmission system. It is the
synchronised superposition of all possible realisations
of the signal of interest viewed within a particular
signaling interval.