U2 VS.

F-15
1
L  W   V SC L
C L2
C D  cd 
2

2 eAR

U2
• Cruise at 70,000 ft
– Air density highly reduced
• Flies at slow speeds, low q∞ →
high angle of attack, high CL
• AR ~ 14.3
F-15
• Flies at high speed (and lower
altitudes), so high q∞ → low
angle of attack, low CL
• AR ~ 3

AR ↑ and Di ↓, but which to control b2 or S?

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WING LOADING (W/S), SPAN LOADING (W/b) AND ASPECT RATIO (b2/S)

W W  b Span loading (W/b), wing loading (W/S)

  and AR (b2/S) are related
b  S  AR

D0  q SC D , 0 Zero-lift drag, D0 is proportional to wing area

2
1 W 
Di    Induced drag, Di, is proportional to square
eq  b  of span loading

Di  1  W  
2
1
    Take ratio of these drags, Di/D0
D0  eq  b   q SC D , 0

W2

W    
S 
2
W
S
2 Re-write W2/(b2S) in terms of AR and substitute into
drag ratio Di/D0
2
b2S b AR
S 1: For specified W/S (set by take-off or landing
requirements) and CD,0 (airfoil choice), increasing AR

Di

1  S
W
2 will decrease drag due to lift relative to zero-lift drag
2: AR predominately controls ratio of induced drag to
D0 eq2 C D , 0 AR zero lift drag, whereas span loading controls actual value
of induced drag
2
EXAMPLE: AIRBUS A380 / BOEING 747 COMPARISON

• Wingspan: 79.8 m • Wingspan: 68.5 m

• AR: 7.53 • AR: 7.98
• GTOW: 560 T • GTOW: 440 T
• Loading: GTOW/b2: 87.94 • Loading: GTOW/b2: 93.77
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FINITE WING CHANGE IN LIFT SLOPE (≠ 2)
a  a eff  a i

• Lift curve for a finite wing has a smaller slope

than corresponding curve for an infinite wing
with same airfoil cross-section
• Figure (a) shows infinite wing, ai = 0, so plot is
CL vs. ageom or aeff and slope is a0

• Figure (b) shows finite wing, ai ≠ 0

– Plot CL vs. what we see, ageom, (or what
would be easy to measure in a wind
tunnel), not what wing sees, aeff

1. Effect of finite wing is to reduce lift curve slope

– Finite wing lift slope = a = dCL/da ≠ 2
2. At CL = 0, ai = 0, so aL=0 same for infinite or
finite wings
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 CALCULATING CHANGE IN LIFT SLOPE
• If we know a0 (infinite wing lift slope, say from data) how can we find finite wing
lift slope, a, for wing with given AR?
dC L
 a0 Lift slope definition for infinite wing
d a  a i 

C L  a0 a  a i   const Integrate

 C 
C L  a0  a  L   const
 eAR  Substitute definition of ai
a a  const
CL  0 Solve for CL
a
1 0
eAR

dC L
a
a0 Differentiate CL with respect to a
da 1
a0 to find lift slope for finite wing
eAR Note: Equation is in radians
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 EXAMPLE: FINITE WING COMPOSED OF NACA 23012 AIRFOIL
Consider a wing with AR=10 and NACA 23012 airfoil section, Re = 5 million, and
span efficiency factor, e = 0.9. The wing is at an angle of attack, a = 4º
Find CL and CD for finite wing

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 EXAMPLE: U2 VS. F-15
1
L  W   V SC L
C L2
C D  cd 
2

2 eAR

U2
• Cruise at 70,000 ft
– Air density highly reduced
• Flies at slow speeds, low q∞ →
high angle of attack, high CL
• AR ~ 14.3
F-15
• Flies at high speed (and lower
altitudes), so high q∞ → low
angle of attack, low CL
• AR ~ 3

Which of airplane is more sensitive to atmospheric turbulence?

7