Chapter 6 V7.01

Chapter 6
The Link Layer

and LANs
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7th edition
Thanks and enjoy! JFK/KWR
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
All material copyright 1996-2016 Pearson/Addison Wesley
J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved April 2016
Link Layer and LANs 6-1
Chapter 6: Link layer and
LANs
our goals:
 understand principles behind link
layer services:
• error detection, correction
• sharing a broadcast channel: multiple
access
• link layer addressing
• local area networks: Ethernet, VLANs
 instantiation, implementation of
various link layer technologies

Link layer, LANs: outline
6.1 introduction, 6.5 link virtualization:
services MPLS
6.2 error detection, 6.6 data center
correction networking
6.3 multiple access 6.7 a day in the life
protocols of a web request
6.4 LANs
• addressing, ARP
• Ethernet
• switches
• VLANS
Link layer:
introduction
terminology:
 hosts and routers:
nodes
 communication
channels that connect
adjacent nodes along
communication path:
links
• wired links
• wireless links
data-link layer has responsibility of
• LANs
transferring datagram from one node
 layer-2 packet: frame,
to physically adjacent node over a link
encapsulates datagram
Link layer: context
 datagram transferred transportation
by different link analogy:
protocols over different  trip from Princeton to
links: Lausanne
• e.g., Ethernet on • limo: Princeton to JFK
first link, frame relay • plane: JFK to Geneva
on intermediate • train: Geneva to
Lausanne
links, 802.11 on last
link  tourist = datagram
 each link protocol  transport segment =
provides different communication link
services  transportation mode =
• e.g., may or may not link layer protocol
provide rdt over link  travel agent =Linkrouting
Layer and LANs 6-5
Link layer services
 framing, link access:
• encapsulate datagram into frame, adding
header, trailer
• channel access if shared medium
• “MAC” addresses used in frame headers to
identify source, destination
• different from IP address!
 reliable delivery between adjacent
nodes
• we learned how to do this already (chapter
3)!
• seldom used on low bit-error link (fiber,
some twisted pair)
• wireless links: high error rates
• Q: why both link-level and end-end
reliability? Link Layer and LANs 6-6
Link layer services
(more)
 flow control:
• pacing between adjacent sending and receiving
nodes
 error detection:
• errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
• receiver detects presence of errors:
• signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
 error correction:
• receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without
resorting to retransmission
 half-duplex and full-duplex
• with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can
transmit, but not at same time
Where is the link layer
implemented?
 in each and every host
 link layer implemented
in “adaptor” (aka
network interface card
application
NIC) or on a chip transport
network cpu memory
• Ethernet card, link
802.11 card; host

Ethernet chipset controller
bus
(e.g., PCI)
link
• implements link, physical
physical
physical layer transmission
 attaches into host’s network adapter
system buses card
 combination of
hardware, software, Link Layer and LANs 6-8
Adaptors communicating
datagram datagram
controller controller
sending host receiving host

datagram
frame
 sending side:  receiving side

• encapsulates • looks for errors, rdt,
datagram in frame flow control, etc.
• adds error checking • extracts datagram,
bits, rdt, flow passes to upper
control, etc. layer at receiving
services MPLS
6.4 LANs
• addressing, ARP
• Ethernet
• switches
• VLANS
Error detection
EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)
D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields
• Error detection not 100% reliable!

• protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
• larger EDC field yields better detection and correction
otherwise

Parity checking
single bit parity: two-dimensional bit parity:
 detect single bit  detect and correct single bit errors
errors
0 0
* Check out the online interactive exercises for more

examples: http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/ Link Layer and LANs 6-12
Internet checksum (review)
goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in
transmitted packet (note: used at transport
layer only)
sender: receiver:
 treat segment  compute checksum of
contents as received segment
sequence of 16-bit  check if computed
integers checksum equals
 checksum: addition checksum field value:
(1’s complement • NO - error detected
sum) of segment • YES - no error
contents detected. But
 sender puts maybe errors
checksum value nonetheless?
into UDP checksum
field
Cyclic redundancy check
 more powerful error-detection coding
 view data bits, D, as a binary number
 choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G
 goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that
• <D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo 2)
• receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero
remainder: error detected!
• can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
 widely used in practice (Ethernet, 802.11 WiFi,
ATM)

CRC example
want:
D.2r XOR R = nG
equivalently:
D.2r = nG XOR R
equivalently:
if we divide D.2r
by G, want
remainder R to
satisfy:
D.2r
R = remainder[ ]
G

services MPLS
6.4 LANs
• addressing, ARP
• Ethernet
• switches
• VLANS
Multiple access links,
protocols
two types of “links”:
 point-to-point
• PPP for dial-up access
• point-to-point link between Ethernet switch, host
 broadcast (shared wire or medium)
• old-fashioned Ethernet
• upstream HFC
• 802.11 wireless LAN
shared wire (e.g., shared RF shared RF humans at a

cabled Ethernet) (e.g., 802.11 WiFi) (satellite) cocktail party
(shared air, acoustical)

Multiple access protocols
 single shared broadcast channel
 two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes:
interference
• collision if node receives two or more signals at
the same time
multiple access protocol

 distributed algorithm that determines how nodes
share channel, i.e., determine when node can
transmit
 communication about channel sharing must use
channel itself!
• no out-of-band channel for coordination
An ideal multiple access
protocol
given: broadcast channel of rate R bps
desiderata:
1. when one node wants to transmit, it can send
at rate R.
2. when M nodes want to transmit, each can
send at average rate R/M
3. fully decentralized:
• no special node to coordinate transmissions
• no synchronization of clocks, slots
4. simple

MAC protocols: taxonomy
three broad classes:
 channel partitioning
• divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots,
frequency, code)
• allocate piece to node for exclusive use
 random access
• channel not divided, allow collisions
• “recover” from collisions
 “taking turns”
• nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can
take longer turns

Channel partitioning MAC protocols:
TDMA
TDMA: time division multiple access
 access to channel in "rounds"
 each station gets fixed length slot
(length = packet transmission time) in
each round
 unused slots go idle
 example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have
packets to send, slots 2,5,6 idle
6-slot 6-slot
frame frame
1 3 4 1 3 4

Channel partitioning MAC protocols:
FDMA
FDMA: frequency division multiple access
 channel spectrum divided into frequency bands
 each station assigned fixed frequency band
 unused transmission time in frequency bands go
idle
 example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have packet to
send, frequency bands 2,5,6 idle time
frequency bands
FDM cable

Random access protocols
 when node has packet to send
• transmit at full channel data rate R.
• no a priori coordination among nodes
 two or more transmitting nodes ➜
“collision”,
 random access MAC protocol specifies:
• how to detect collisions
• how to recover from collisions (e.g., via
delayed retransmissions)
 examples of random access MAC
protocols:
• slotted ALOHA
• ALOHA
• CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
Slotted ALOHA
assumptions: operation:
 all frames same size  when node obtains fresh
 time divided into frame, transmits in next
slot
equal size slots (time
• if no collision: node
to transmit 1 frame)
can send new frame
 nodes start to in next slot
transmit only slot • if collision: node
beginning retransmits frame in
 nodes are each subsequent slot
synchronized with prob. p until
success
 if 2 or more nodes
transmit in slot, all
nodes detect collision Link Layer and LANs 6-24
Slotted ALOHA
node 1 1 1 1 1
node 2 2 2 2
node 3 3 3 3
C E C S E C E S S
Pros: Cons:
 single active node  collisions, wasting
can continuously slots
transmit at full rate  idle slots
of channel  nodes may be able
 highly decentralized: to detect collision in
less than time to
only slots in nodes transmit packet
need to be in sync
 clock
 simple Link Layer and LANs 6-25
Slotted ALOHA: efficiency
efficiency: long-run  max efficiency: find

fraction of successful p* that maximizes
slots Np(1-p)N-1
(many nodes, all with  for many nodes, take
many frames to send)
 suppose: N nodes limit of Np*(1-p*)N-1
with many frames to as N goes to infinity,
send, each transmits gives:
in slot with max efficiency = 1/e
!
=at.37
best:
probability p channel
 prob that given node used for useful
has success in a slot transmissions
= p(1-p)N-1 37%
of time!
 prob that any node Link Layer and LANs 6-26
Pure (unslotted) ALOHA
 unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization
 when frame first arrives
• transmit immediately
 collision probability increases:
• frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent
in [t0-1,t0+1]

Pure ALOHA efficiency
P(success by given node) = P(node transmits) .
P(no other node transmits in [t0-
1,t0] .
P(no other node transmits in [t0-
1,t0]
= p . (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1
= p . (1-p)2(N-1)
… choosing optimum p and then letting n

even worse than slotted Aloha!
= 1/(2e) = .18

CSMA (carrier sense multiple
access)
CSMA: listen before transmit:
if channel sensed idle: transmit
entire frame
 if channel sensed busy, defer
transmission
 human analogy: don’t interrupt

others!

CSMA collisions spatial layout of nodes
 collisions can still

occur: propagation
delay means two
nodes may not hear
each other’s
transmission
 collision: entire
packet transmission
time wasted
• distance &
propagation
delay play role in
in determining
collision Link Layer and LANs 6-30
CSMA/CD (collision
detection)
CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in
CSMA
• collisions detected within short time
• colliding transmissions aborted, reducing
channel wastage
 collision detection:
• easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths,
compare transmitted, received signals
• difficult in wireless LANs: received signal
strength overwhelmed by local transmission
strength
 human analogy: the polite
CSMA/CD (collision
detection)
spatial layout of nodes

Ethernet CSMA/CD
algorithm
1. NIC receives 4. If NIC detects
datagram from another
network layer, transmission while
creates frame transmitting, aborts
2. If NIC senses and sends jam
channel idle, starts signal
frame transmission. 5. After aborting, NIC
If NIC senses enters binary
channel busy, waits (exponential)
until channel idle, backoff:
then transmits. • after mth collision,
3. If NIC transmits NIC chooses K at
entire frame without random fromLink Layer and LANs 6-33
CSMA/CD efficiency
 Tprop = max prop delay between 2 nodes in LAN
 ttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
1
efficiency 
1  5t prop /ttrans
 efficiency goes to 1
• as tprop goes to 0
• as ttrans goes to infinity
 better performance than ALOHA: and simple,
cheap, decentralized!
“Taking turns” MAC
protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocols:
 share channel efficiently and fairly at high
load
 inefficient at low load: delay in channel
access, 1/N bandwidth allocated even if only
1 active node!
random access MAC protocols
 efficient at low load: single node can fully
utilize channel
 high load: collision overhead
“taking turns” protocols
look for best of both worlds!
protocols
polling:
 master node
“invites” slave data
poll
nodes to transmit
in turn master
 typically used with data
“dumb” slave
devices
 concerns: slaves
• polling
overhead
• latency
• single point of Link Layer and LANs 6-36
protocols
token passing: T
 control token
passed from one
node to next
sequentially. (nothing
 token message to send)
 concerns: T
 token overhead
 latency
 single point of
failure (token)
data

Cable access
network
Internet frames, TV channels, control transmitted
downstream at different frequencies
cable headend
CMTS
…
cable
cable modem
… splitter
modem
termination system
ISP
upstream Internet frames, TV control, transmitted
upstream at different frequencies in time slots
 multiple 40Mbps downstream (broadcast) channels

 single CMTS transmits into channels
 multiple 30 Mbps upstream channels
 multiple access: all users contend for certain
upstream channel time slots (others assigned)
Cable access
network
cable headend MAP frame for
Interval [t1, t2]
Downstream channel i
CMTS
Upstream channel j
t1 t2 Residences with cable modems
Minislots containing Assigned minislots containing cable modem

minislots request frames upstream data frames
DOCSIS: data over cable service interface

spec
 FDM over upstream, downstream frequency
channels
 TDM upstream: some slots assigned, some have
contention
• downstream MAP frame: assigns upstream
Summary of MAC
protocols
 channel partitioning, by time, frequency or
code
• Time Division, Frequency Division
 random access (dynamic),
• ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
• carrier sensing: easy in some technologies
(wire), hard in others (wireless)
• CSMA/CD used in Ethernet
• CSMA/CA used in 802.11
 taking turns
• polling from central site, token passing
• Bluetooth, FDDI, token ring
services MPLS
6.4 LANs
• addressing, ARP
• Ethernet
• switches
• VLANS
MAC addresses and ARP
 32-bit IP address:
• network-layer address for interface
• used for layer 3 (network layer) forwarding
 MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet)
address:
• function: used ‘locally” to get frame from one
interface to another physically-connected
interface (same network, in IP-addressing
sense)
• 48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in
hexadecimal (base 16) notation
NIC
(each ROM,
“numeral” also sometimes
represents 4 bits) software settable
• e.g.: 1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
LAN addresses and ARP
each adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
LAN
(wired or adapter
wireless)
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98

LAN addresses (more)
 MAC address allocation administered by
IEEE
 manufacturer buys portion of MAC
address space (to assure uniqueness)
 analogy:
• MAC address: like Social Security Number
• IP address: like postal address
 MAC flat address ➜ portability
• can move LAN card from one LAN to another
 IP hierarchical address not portable
• address depends on IP subnet to which
ARP: address resolution
protocol
Question: how to determine
interface’s MAC address,
knowing its IP address? ARP table: each IP node
(host, router) on LAN
137.196.7.78 has table
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD • IP/MAC address
137.196.7.23
137.196.7.14
mappings for some
LAN nodes:
LAN < IP address; MAC
71-65-F7-2B-08-53 address; TTL>
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
• TTL (Time To Live):
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98 time after which
137.196.7.88 address mapping
will be forgotten
(typicallyLink20 min)
Layer and LANs 6-45
ARP protocol: same LAN
 A wants to send
datagram to B
• B’s MAC address not in
 A caches (saves) IP-
A’s ARP table. to-MAC address pair
 A broadcasts ARP in its ARP table until
query packet, information becomes
containing B's IP old (times out)
• soft state: information
address
that times out (goes
• destination MAC
away) unless
address = FF-FF-FF-FF- refreshed
FF-FF
• all nodes on LAN  ARP is “plug-and-
receive ARP query play”:
 B receives ARP • nodes create their ARP
tables without
packet, replies to A intervention
Link from
Layer andnet
LANs 6-46
Addressing: routing to another
LAN
walkthrough: send datagram from A to B via R
 focus on addressing – at IP (datagram) and MAC
layer (frame)
 assume A knows B’s IP address
 assume A knows IP address of first hop router, R
(how?)
 assume A knows R’s MAC address (how?)
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

LAN
 A creates IP datagram with IP source A, destination B
 A creates link-layer frame with R's MAC address as
destination address, frame contains A-to-B IP datagram
MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
MAC dest: E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
Eth
Phy
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221


LAN
 frame sent from A to R
 frame received at R, datagram removed, passed up to IP
MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55

MAC dest: E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP IP
Eth Eth
Phy Phy
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221


LAN
 R forwards datagram with IP source A, destination B
 R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as
MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
IP Eth
Eth Phy
Phy
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221


LAN
 R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as
MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
IP Eth
Eth Phy
Phy
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221


LAN
 R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as dest,
frame contains A-to-B IP datagram MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
Eth
Phy
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221


services MPLS
6.4 LANs
• addressing, ARP
• Ethernet
• switches
• VLANS
Ethernet
“dominant” wired LAN technology:
 single chip, multiple speeds (e.g., Broadcom
BCM5761)
 first widely used LAN technology
 simpler, cheap
 kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps – 10 Gbps
Metcalfe’s Ethernet sketch

Ethernet: physical topology
 bus: popular through mid 90s
• all nodes in same collision domain (can collide
with each other)
 star: prevails today
• active switch in center
• each “spoke” runs a (separate) Ethernet
protocol (nodes do not collide with each other)
switch
star
bus: coaxial cable
Ethernet frame structure
sending adapter encapsulates IP

datagram (or other network layer
type
protocol packet)
dest. source
in Ethernet frame
preamble address address data CRC
(payload)
preamble:
 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed
by one byte with pattern 10101011
 used to synchronize receiver, sender
clock rates
Ethernet frame structure
(more)
 addresses: 6 byte source, destination MAC
addresses
• if adapter receives frame with matching
destination address, or with broadcast address
(e.g. ARP packet), it passes data in frame to
network layer protocol
• otherwise, adapter discards frame
 type: indicates higher layer protocol
(mostly IP but others possible, e.g., Novell
IPX, AppleTalk) type
dest. source data
 CRC: cyclic
preamble addressredundancy
address check atCRC
(payload) receiver
• error detected: frame is dropped
Ethernet: unreliable,
connectionless
 connectionless: no handshaking between
sending and receiving NICs
 unreliable: receiving NIC doesn't send acks
or nacks to sending NIC
• data in dropped frames recovered only if
initial sender uses higher layer rdt (e.g.,
TCP), otherwise dropped data lost
 Ethernet’s MAC protocol: unslotted
CSMA/CD with binary backoff

802.3 Ethernet standards: link & physical
layers
 many different Ethernet standards
• common MAC protocol and frame format
• different speeds: 2 Mbps, 10 Mbps, 100
Mbps, 1Gbps, 10 Gbps, 40 Gbps
• different physical layer media: fiber, cable
MAC protocol
application and frame format
transport
network 100BASE-TX 100BASE-T2 100BASE-FX
link 100BASE-T4 100BASE-SX 100BASE-BX
physical
copper (twister fiber physical layer

pair) physical layer
services MPLS
6.4 LANs
• addressing, ARP
• Ethernet
• switches
• VLANS
Ethernet switch
 link-layer device: takes an active role
• store, forward Ethernet frames
• examine incoming frame’s MAC
address, selectively forward frame to
one-or-more outgoing links when frame
is to be forwarded on segment, uses
CSMA/CD to access segment
 transparent
• hosts are unaware of presence of
switches
 plug-and-play, self-learning
• switches do not need to be configured
Switch: multiple simultaneous
transmissions
 hosts have dedicated, A
direct connection to
switch C’ B
 switches buffer packets 1

6 2
 Ethernet protocol used on
each incoming link, but 5 4 3
no collisions; full duplex
B’ C
• each link is its own
collision domain
 switching: A-to-A’ and B- A’
to-B’ can transmit switch with six interfaces
simultaneously, without (1,2,3,4,5,6)
collisions

Switch forwarding table
Q: how does switch know A
A’ reachable via interface C’ B

4, B’ reachable via
 A: each5?
interface switch has a 6 1 2
switch table, each 4

5 3
entry:
B’ C
 (MAC address of host,
interface to reach host,
time stamp) A’
Q:how
looksare
likeentries created,
a routing table! switch with six interfaces
(1,2,3,4,5,6)
maintained in switch
table?
 something like a routing
protocol? Link Layer and LANs 6-63
Switch: self-learning Source: A
Dest: A’
A A A’
 switch learns which
hosts can be reached C’ B
through which
interfaces 6 1 2
• when frame 4
5 3
received, switch
“learns” location of B’ C
sender: incoming
LAN segment A’
• records
MAC addr interface TTL
sender/location pair Switch table
A 1 60
in switch table (initially empty)

Switch: frame
filtering/forwarding
when frame received at switch:
1. record incoming link, MAC address of sending

host
2. index switch table using MAC destination
address
3. if entry found for destination
then {
if destination on segment from which frame
arrived
then drop frame
else forward frame on interface indicated
by entry
}
else flood /* forward on all interfaces except
Self-learning, forwarding: Source: A
example Dest: A’
A A A’
 frame destination,
B
A’, location flood C’
unknown: A
 destination 6 1 2
locationselectively
known: A A’
5 4 3
send B’ C
on just one link A’ A
A’
MAC addr interface TTL

A 1 60 switch table
A’ 4 60 (initially empty)

Interconnecting switches
self-learning switches can be connected
together: S 4
S1
S3
A S2
F
D I
B C
G H
E
Q: sending from A to G - how does S1 know

to forward frame destined to G via S4 and
S3?
 A: self learning! (works exactly the
same as in single-switch case!) Link Layer and LANs 6-67
Self-learning multi-switch
example
Suppose C sends frame to I, I responds to C
S4
S1
S3
A S2
F
D I
B C
G H
E
 Q: show switch tables and packet forwarding in

S1, S2, S3, S4

Institutional network
mail server
to external
network
router web server
IP subnet

Switches vs.
routers application
transport
both are store-and- datagram network
forward: frame link
 routers: network-layer physical link frame
devices (examine physical
network-layer switch
headers)
 switches: link-layer network datagram
link frame
devices (examine link- physical
layer headers)
application
both have forwarding transport
tables: network
 routers: compute link
tables using routing physical
algorithms, IP
addresses Link Layer and LANs 6-70
VLANs: motivation
consider:
 CS user moves office
to EE, but wants
connect to CS switch?
 single broadcast
domain:
Computer • all layer-2
Computer
Science Electrical
Engineering
Engineering broadcast traffic
(ARP, DHCP,
unknown location
of destination MAC
address) must
cross entire LAN
• security/privacy,
port-based VLAN: switch ports
VLANs grouped (by switch
management software) so
Virtual Local that single physical switch
7 9 15
……
1
Area Network 2 8 10 16
switch(es) supporting
VLAN capabilities can … …
be configured to Electrical Engineering Computer Science
define multiple virtual (VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-15)
LANS over single … operates as multiple virtual

physical LAN switches
infrastructure. 1 7 9 15
2 8 10 16
… …
Electrical Engineering Computer Science

(VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-16)

Port-based VLAN
router
 traffic isolation: frames
to/from ports 1-8 can
only reach ports 1-8
• can also define VLAN
based on MAC addresses 1 7 9 15
2 8 10 16
of endpoints, rather than

 dynamic membership:
switch port … …
ports can be
dynamically assigned Electrical Engineering Computer Science
among VLANs (VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-15)
 forwarding between VLANS:

done via routing (just as with
separate switches)
• in practice vendors sell
combined switches plus routers

VLANS spanning multiple
switches
1 7 9 15 1 3 5 7
2 8 10 16 2 4 6 8
… …
Electrical Engineering Computer Science Ports 2,3,5 belong to EE VLAN

(VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-15) Ports 4,6,7,8 belong to CS VLAN
 trunk port: carries frames between VLANS defined

over multiple physical switches
• frames forwarded within VLAN between switches can’t be
vanilla 802.1 frames (must carry VLAN ID info)
• 802.1q protocol adds/removed additional header fields for
frames forwarded between trunk ports

802.1Q VLAN frame format
type
preamble dest. source data (payload) CRC

address address 802.1 frame
type
dest. source
preamble
address address
data (payload) CRC 802.1Q frame
2-byte Tag Protocol Identifier

Recomputed
(value: 81-00)
CRC
Tag Control Information (12 bit VLAN ID field,

3 bit priority field like IP TOS)

services MPLS
6.4 LANs
• addressing, ARP
• Ethernet
• switches
• VLANS
Multiprotocol label switching
(MPLS)
 initial goal: high-speed IP forwarding
using fixed length label (instead of IP
address)
• fast lookup using fixed length identifier
(rather than shortest prefix matching)
• borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC)
approach
PPP or Ethernet
• but MPLS header IP header remainder of link-layer frame
IP datagram
header still keeps IP address!
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
MPLS capable routers
 a.k.a. label-switched router
 forward packets to outgoing interface
based only on label value (don’t inspect IP
address)
• MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP
forwarding tables
 flexibility: MPLS forwarding decisions can
differ from those of IP
• use destination and source addresses to route
flows to same destination differently (traffic
engineering)
• re-route flows quickly if link fails: pre-computed
MPLS versus IP paths
R6
D
R4 R3
R5
A
R2
 IP routing: path to destination IP router

determined by destination
address alone

MPLS versus IP paths
entry router (R4) can use different MPLS
routes to A based, e.g., on source address
R6
D
R4 R3
R5
A
R2
 IP routing: path to destination IP-only

determined by destination router
address
 MPLS alone path to
routing: MPLS and
IP router
destination can be based on
source and destination address
• fast reroute: precompute backup Link Layer and LANs 6-80
MPLS signaling
 modify OSPF, IS-IS link-state flooding
protocols to carry info used by MPLS
routing,
 entry
• e.g.,MPLS router uses
link bandwidth, RSVP-TE
amount signaling
of “reserved” link
protocol
bandwidthto set up MPLS forwarding at
downstream routers
R6 RSVP-TE
D
R4
R5
modified
link state A
flooding

MPLS forwarding tables
in out out
label label dest
interface
10 A 0 in out out
12 D 0 label label dest
interface
8 A 1 10 6 A 1
12 9 D 0
R6
0 0
D
1 1
R4 R3
R5
0 0
A
R2 in outR1 out
label label dest
in out out
interface
label label dest 6 - A 0
interface
8 6 A 0
services MPLS
6.4 LANs
• addressing, ARP
• Ethernet
• switches
• VLANS
Data center networks
 10’s to 100’s of thousands of hosts, often
closely coupled, in close proximity:
• e-business (e.g. Amazon)
• content-servers (e.g., YouTube, Akamai, Apple,
Microsoft)
 challenges:
• search engines, data mining (e.g., Google)
 multiple applications,
each serving massive
numbers of clients
 managing/balancing
load, avoiding
processing, networking, Inside a 40-ft Microsoft container,
data bottlenecks Chicago data center
load balancer: application-layer
routing
 receives external client requests
 directs workload within data center
Internet  returns results to external client
(hiding data center internals from
client)
Border router
Load Load
balancer Access router balancer
Tier-1 switches
B
A C Tier-2 switches
TOR switches
Server racks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
 rich interconnection among switches, racks:
• increased throughput between racks (multiple
routing paths possible)
• increased reliability via redundancy
Tier-1 switches
Tier-2 switches
TOR switches
Server racks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
services MPLS
64 LANs
• addressing, ARP
• Ethernet
• switches
• VLANS
Synthesis: a day in the life of a web
request
 journey down protocol stack complete!
• application, transport, network, link
 putting-it-all-together: synthesis!
• goal: identify, review, understand protocols
(at all layers) involved in seemingly simple
scenario: requesting www page
• scenario: student attaches laptop to campus
network, requests/receives www.google.com

A day in the life: scenario
browser DNS server

Comcast network
68.80.0.0/13
school network
68.80.2.0/24
web page
web server Google’s network

64.233.169.105 64.233.160.0/19

A day in the life… connecting to the
Internet
DHCP
DHCP
UDP
 connecting laptop
DHCP
DHCP IP needs to get its own IP
DHCP Eth address, addr of first-
Phy
DHCP
hop router, addr of
DNS server:
 DHCP requestuse DHCP
DHCP
encapsulated in UDP,
DHCP
DHCP UDP encapsulated in IP,
DHCP IP encapsulated in 802.3
DHCP Eth router Ethernet
Phy (runs DHCP)  Ethernet frame
broadcast (dest:
FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN,
received at router
running DHCP
 Ethernet server
demuxed to IP
demuxed, UDP
demuxed to DHCP
A day in the life… connecting to the
Internet
DHCP
DHCP
 DHCP server
DHCP UDP
DHCP IP
formulates DHCP ACK
DHCP Eth
containing client’s IP
Phy
address, IP address of
first-hop router for
client, name & IP
address of DNS
 encapsulation atserver
DHCP
DHCP DHCP server, frame
DHCP UDP forwarded (switch
DHCP IP learning) through LAN,
DHCP Eth router demultiplexing at
Phy (runs DHCP)
DHCP client client receives
 DHCP
DHCP ACK reply
Client now has IP address, knows name & addr of DNS

server, IP address of its first-hop router

A day in the life… ARP (before DNS,
before HTTP)
DNS DNS  before sending HTTP request,
UDP
DNS
need IP address of
DNS IP
ARP query
ARP
Eth www.google.com: DNS
Phy  DNS query created,
encapsulated in UDP,
encapsulated in IP,
ARP reply
ARP
Eth
encapsulated in Eth. To
Phy send frame to router, need
router
 MAC address
ARP query of router
broadcast,
(runs DHCP) interface:
received byARP
router, which
replies with ARP reply
giving MAC address of
router interface
 client now knows MAC
address of first hop router,
so can now send frame
containing DNS query
A day in the life… using DNSDNS
DNS UDP DNS server
DNS IP
DNS DNS DNS Eth
DNS UDP DNS Phy
DNS IP
DNS Eth
Phy
DNS
Comcast network
68.80.0.0/13
router  IP datagram forwarded

(runs DHCP) from campus network into
 IP datagram containing Comcast network, routed
DNS query forwarded (tables created by RIP,
via LAN switch from OSPF, IS-IS and/or BGP
client to 1st hop router routing protocols)
 demuxed to DNS to DNS
server
server
 DNS server replies to
client with IP address
A day in the life…TCP connection
carrying HTTP
HTTP
HTTP
SYNACK
SYN TCP
SYNACK
SYN IP
SYNACK
SYN Eth
Phy
 to send HTTP request,

client first opens TCP
router socket to web server
(runs DHCP)  TCP SYN segment (step 1
SYNACK
SYN TCP
SYNACK
SYN IP in 3-way handshake)
SYNACK
SYN Eth inter-domain routed to
Phy  web server responds
with TCP SYNACK (step 2
web server in 3-way handshake)
64.233.169.105  TCP connection
established!
A day in the life… HTTP
request/reply
HTTP
HTTP HTTP  web page finally (!!!)
HTTP
HTTP TCP displayed
HTTP
HTTP IP
HTTP
HTTP Eth
Phy
 HTTP request sent into

TCP socket
router  IP datagram containing
HTTP HTTP (runs DHCP)
HTTP TCP HTTP request routed to
HTTP IP www.google.com
HTTP Eth  web server responds
Phy
with HTTP reply
(containing web page)
web server
64.233.169.105  IP datagram containing
HTTP reply routed back to
client
Chapter 6: Summary
 principles behind data link layer services:
• error detection, correction
• sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access
• link layer addressing
 instantiation and implementation of
various link layer technologies
• Ethernet
• switched LANS, VLANs
• virtualized networks as a link layer: MPLS
 synthesis: a day in the life of a web
request
Chapter 6: let’s take a
breath
 journey down protocol stack complete
(except PHY)
 solid understanding of networking
principles, practice
 ….. could stop here …. but lots of
interesting topics!
• wireless
• multimedia
• security

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Chapter 6

The Link Layer

A note on the use of these Powerpoint slides:

Link Layer and LANs 6-2

802.11 card; host

physical layer transmission

 attaches into host’s network adapter

system buses card

sending host receiving host

 sending side:  receiving side

• Error detection not 100% reliable!

Link Layer and LANs 6-11

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more

Link Layer and LANs 6-14

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more

shared wire (e.g., shared RF shared RF humans at a

Link Layer and LANs 6-17

multiple access protocol

Link Layer and LANs 6-19

Link Layer and LANs 6-20

Link Layer and LANs 6-21

Link Layer and LANs 6-22

efficiency: long-run  max efficiency: find

Link Layer and LANs 6-27

… choosing optimum p and then letting n

Link Layer and LANs 6-28

 human analogy: don’t interrupt

Link Layer and LANs 6-29

 collisions can still

Link Layer and LANs 6-32

Link Layer and LANs 6-37

 multiple 40Mbps downstream (broadcast) channels

t1 t2 Residences with cable modems

Minislots containing Assigned minislots containing cable modem

DOCSIS: data over cable service interface

Link Layer and LANs 6-43

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer and LANs 6-47

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer and LANs 6-48

MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer and LANs 6-49

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer and LANs 6-50

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer and LANs 6-51

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more

Metcalfe’s Ethernet sketch

sending adapter encapsulates IP

Link Layer and LANs 6-58

copper (twister fiber physical layer

 switches buffer packets 1

Link Layer and LANs 6-62

Q: how does switch know A

A’ reachable via interface C’ B

switch table, each 4

Link Layer and LANs 6-64

1. record incoming link, MAC address of sending

MAC addr interface TTL

Link Layer and LANs 6-66

Q: sending from A to G - how does S1 know