Presented by:- Sukhbir Singh

Material Engineer
IRB Infrastructure Developers Ltd.
Embankment &  Successful performance of
Sub-grade? an embankment depends as
much on adopting standards
of good compaction in
construction as on careful
pre-investigations regarding
the selection of appropriate
borrow soil and design of
feature of the embankment.
 Sub grades which are well
compacted possess high
strength and resistance to
deformation; due to their
increased stability.
 An embankment refers to a volume of earthen material that is placed and
compacted for the purpose of raising the grade of roadway above the
level of the existing surrounding ground surface and substantially 1m
above the high flood level.
 The embankment is generally constructed using locally available soil
borrowed from either side including the soil excavated from cutting
portion or side drains etc.
 It is desirable that soil from borrow area full fill the specification of
MORT&H and IRC.
 Waste materials which are suitable for using embankment such as fly ash
also be used but by strictly following the recommended design and
construction methodology.
1. Embankment foundations with vertical
sand drains.
 Where it is too expensive or impractical to provide deep drainage channel
as specified above, it is recommended to do a careful examination of the
economics of the case, and an embankment of such height may be
provided that the bottom of sub-grade remains at least 1.5m above
HFL(high flood level).
 Earth Work on Existing Road Surface
 i) if the existing surface is of granular type and lies within 1m for new
formation level it shall be scarified to a depth of 50mm or as directed so
as to be provided ample bond between old and new material
 ii) if the existing road surface is of bituminous type or cement concrete ,
and lies within 1m of new sub-grade layer, the bituminous/concrete shall
be remove completely.
 iii) if the level difference between existing road surface and new formation
level is more than 1m, the existing surface shall be roughened after
ensuring that minimum thickness of 0.5m of sub-grade is available .
 Capillary cut-off could be provided to arrest the capillary rise of
water in embankment.
 Capillary cut-off may be layer of coarse or fine sand and graded
gravel.
 The cut-off should be placed at least 0.15m above the ground level
or standing water level whichever is higher. But in no case it shall be
positioned higher than 0.6m below the top of sub grade.
 The capillary cut off medium should be extend under the
bump/shoulder as well that s for full formation width as shown in
figure below.
 Potentially expansive soil, such as, black cotton soil are montmorillonite clays and are
characterized by their extreme hardness and deep crack when dry and with tendency
heaving during the process of wetting. Roads beds made up such soil when subjected to
change in moisture content due to seasonal wetting and drying or due to ay other reason
undergo volumetric changes leading to pavement distortion, cracking and general
unevenness .

 Expansive soils swell very little when compacted at low density and high moisture but swell
greatly when compacted at high density and low moisture hence, where the probability
moisture variation in the sub grade is high , it is expedient to compact the soil slightly wet of
the field optimum moisture content(+2%) determine the on the basis of field trial.

 A minimum density corresponding to 95% standard proctor density should be attained in the
field and moisture content 1 to 2% wet of moisture content .
 Buffer Layer

 There is a definite gain in placing the pavement on a non-expansive impermeable soil cushion of 0.6-1.0 m
thickness. It prevents ingress of water in the underlying expansive soil layer, counteracts swelling and
secondly even if the underlying expansive soil heaves, the movement will be more uniform and
consequently more tolerable. However, where provision of non-expansive buffer layer is not economically
feasible, a blanket course of suitable impermeable material and thickness as discussed below must be
provided.

 Blanket Course

 An impermeable blanket course of at least 225 mm thickness and composed of coarse/medium sand or
non-plastic morum having PI less than five should be provided on the expansive soil sub grade as a sub-
base to serve as an effective intrusion barrier. It must have very low permeability. The blanket course
should extend over the entire formation width.

 Alternatively, lime-stabilized black cotton sub-base extending over the entire formation width may be
provided together with measures for efficient drainage of the pavement section.
 Use of geonet: the primary function of Geonet is to convey
liquid within the plain of its structure.
 Using geosyenthtic drains(prefabricated vertical drain):- Prefabricated Vertical
Drains (PVDs) or ‘Wick Drains' are composed of a plastic core encased by a geotextile
for the purpose of expediting consolidation of slow draining soils. They are typically
coupled with surcharging to expedite preconstruction soil consolidation. Surcharging
means to pre-load soft soils by applying a temporary load to the ground that exerts
stress of usually equivalent or greater magnitude than the anticipated design stresses.
The surcharge will increase pore water pressures initially, but with time the water will
drain away and the soil voids will compress. These prefabricated wick drains are used
to shorten pore water travel distance, reducing the preloading time. The intent is to
accelerate primary settlement. Pore water will flow laterally to the nearest drain, as
opposed to vertical flow to an underlying or overlying drainage layer. Youtube link:-
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eTGa0fG9HWY
 Rammed stone column:- Stone columns help to limit the
amount and consequences of future liquefaction by:
Densifying the soil through vibration and
introducing stone into the soil. Reinforcing the soil creating a
stiff composite soil mass.
 Due to its higher modulus of elasticity than that of soil, it
absorbs more load than soil and reduces overall settlement.
Since applied load distributes in between soil and stone
column in the ratio of their stiffness, the load carrying
capacity of soil also increases. Stone aggregates are used to
fill stone column.
 Rock fill embankment:-where the embankment has to be constructed on weak strata or
slushy area the bottom of embankment fill can be constructed with rock fill embankment.
The size of rock pieces used in rock fill embankment shall be such that they can be deposited
in layers . The max. size of rock should not exceed 300mm and percentage finer than 125mm
not exceeding 10 percent.
 Argillaceous rock(clay shales etc.), un burnt colliery stock and chalk shall not be using rock
fill.
 The material shall be tipped, spread and level in layer extending to the full width of
embankment by dozer. Fragments of rock shall be spread on the top layer to the required
extend and layer compacted by minimum 5 passes of vibratory roller having static weight 8
to 10 tones. the compacted thickness each layer shall not be more than 500mm.
 the top layer of rock fill, on which normal earth fill will rest shall thoroughly blinded with
suitable granular material to see it surfaces
 The prepared earth surface on which pavement rest. it is the top 500mm of the
embankment immediately below the bottom of pavement and it is made up of
in situ material , selected soil or stabilized soil that form the foundation of the
pavement. it should be well compacted to limit the scope of rutting in pavement
due to additional densification during the service life of pavement .
 The select soil forming the sub grade should have minimum CBR of 8 percent for
roads having traffic of 450 commercial vehicle per day.
 The sub grade ultimately carries all traffic road .there for , the structural function
of a pavement is to support a wheel road on pavement surface and transfer and
spreading that load to the sub grade without exceeding the strength of the sub
grade or the internal strength of sub grade.
 The CBR values of the sub grade soil varies along the highway
alignment even on a homogeneous section the 19th percentile CBR
value should be adopted as the design CBR(such that 90% of the
average CBR value are equal to or greater than the design value) for
high volume roads such as expressway, national highways and state
highways for other category of roads, design can be based on 80th
percentile of laboratory CBR value.
 Pavement thickness of new roads may be modified at intervals as
dictated by the change of soil profile but generally it will be found
inexpedient to do so frequently from practical consideration.
 Resilient modulus, which is measured taking into account only the
elastic(or resilient) component of the deformation( or strain) of the
specimen in a repeated load test is considered to be the appropriate
input for linear elastic theory for the analysis of flexible pavement. It is
required for the pavement design( input of iit pave software for
pavement design)
 The resilient modulus of soil can be determine in the laboratory by
conducted the repeated tri-axial
 Test as per procedure detailed in AASHTO T307-99. The following
relationships may be used to estimate the resilient modulus of sub
grade soil(MRS)from its CBR value
 MRS =10.00*CBR For CBR<5%
 MRS =17.6*(CBR)0.64 For CBR>5% Where,
MRS =resilient modulus of sub grade soil (Mpa)
CBR= California bearing ratio of sub grade soil(%)
Poisson’s ratio value or sub grade soil may be taken
as 0.35
Soil stabilization a general term for any physical, chemical, mechanical, biological or combined
method of changing a natural soil to meet an engineering purpose. Improvements include
increasing the weight bearing capabilities, tensile strength, and overall performance of in-situ
sub-soils, sands, and waste materials in order to strengthen road pavements.
Method of Stabilisation :-
Additives: Manufactured commercial products that, when added to the soil in the proper
quantities, improve some engineering characteristics of the soil such as strength, texture,
workability, and plasticity.
Additives addressed in this manual are limited to cement, Lime and Fly-ash.
Mechanical Stabilization: Mechanical stabilization is accomplished by mixing or blending soils of
two or more gradations or mixing soil with aggregates to obtain a material meeting the required
specification. The soil blending may take place at the construction site, a central plant, or a
borrow area. The blended material is then spread and compacted to required densities by
conventional means.
 Additive/Chemical Stabilization: Additive stabilization is achieved by the addition of
proper percentages of cement, lime, fly ash, or combinations of these materials to the
soil. The selection of type and quantity or the percentage of additive to be used is
dependent upon the soil classification and the degree of improvement in soil quality
desired. Generally, smaller amounts of additives are required when it is simply desired
to modify soil properties such as gradation, workability and plasticity. When it is desired
to improve the strength and durability significantly, larger quantities of additive are
used. After the additive has been mixed with the soil, spreading, sprinkling water and
compaction at OMC are achieved by conventional means . The dosages of such
CCS(commercial chemical stabilizer) to be mixed varies from 0.5% to 5% of cement
content these CCS are available either in powder form in liquid form the different
categories of CCS available in country are as below :-
 A) Natural Inorganic Powder Binders
 B) Water Repelling Nano Chemicals
 C) Waste Oil
 D)Petroleum Based Products
 E) Liquid Stabilized Product
 F)Synthetics Polymers
 METHODOLOGY: ‐ SETTING OUT
 Setting out of centerline on ground, of the proposed road project, and marking the reference
data of the centerline at suitable locations is of prime importance and is the first step in the
execution of the road project. All the typical cross‐sections, salient features given in the
tender drawings and indesign data is shown with respect to centerline. Centerline is
reference to every activity of work, therefore, it is of prime importance & first requirement
to set out the centerline on ground for the execution of the project work.
 Centerline shall be set out on the ground with proper care and very accurately. In order to
maintain the accuracy, precise survey instrument such as Total Station shall be used. Total
Station instrument with one‐second angular accuracy and one mm linear accuracy shall be
used for this purpose. Centerline shall be marked on the site with the following data:
 1. List of co‐ordinates of centerline.
 2. List of circular curve‐data.
 3. List of co‐ordinates of reference pillars/point for setting out of centerline.
 List of Co‐ordinates
 This list provides all details about the centerline such as chainage of centerline, Northing (N)
&Easting (E) co‐ordinates of all Point of Intersection (PI), course/Bearing (in
degree‐minute‐second)of line from one PI to another, length of the line in between two PI.
These data shall be prepared with reference to the original design survey with some
corrections/alterations as required.
 Circular Curve Data
 Circular curve data provides the Beginning of Curve (BC), radius point, Point of Tangent or
End of Curve (EC), degree of curve, radius of Curve, Mid‐ordinate, type of curve, deflection
angle at the point of intersection, Chord length, length of the tangent, length of the curve
etc.
 METHODOLOGY: SETTING OUT
 Reference Points
 Reference points are Northing (N) & Easting (E), co‐ordinates of the permanent benchmark fixed along the
project road at some intervals. On the basis of these data, geometric design of road shall be done and
tabulated. In the field reference points have been fixed up on well‐constructed pillars with a steel plate on the
top of it with proper marking and reference pillar number shall be mentioned on the side of the pillars.
 Setting Out
 In order to setting out the centerline first two consecutive pillars (both mutually visible) are located, of which
the co‐ordinates (N, E) are known. After finding out these two pillars ‘Total Station’ instrument will be set on
one pillar with proper centering and leveling. Co‐ordinate of those two pillars will be checked to confirm that
these two pillars are undisturbed. If it is found that coordinate provided, after checking, are within
satisfactory limit these two pillars can be treated as undisturbed and can be used for further reference.
 At the time of fixing up of the centerline on the ground ‘Total Station’ will be set on one of theun disturbed
pillars and the instrument shall be oriented properly by ‘back orientation method’ taking another undisturbed
pillar as back station. After proper orientation of the instrument, the coordinate(N, E) of centerline (PI), shall
be fed in the instrument and the point will be established on the ground on wooden peg through “Setting out
method”. The reference of this point (distance, chainage) shall be indicated on the existing road by paint for
future reference. Next PI, point shall be fixed up in the similar way. After fixing up two PI, instrument shall be
fixed up on one PI and shall be oriented properly by next PI and the position of the centerline shall be marked
on ground at suitable intervals. The reference position of the centerline at these points shall also be marked
on the existing road (distance of CL and chainage) for future reference. In this way, horizontal
alignment(Centre line) point shall be marked on the ground and the reference distance & direction will be
marked on the road.
 Reference co‐ordinate pillars shall be constructed at regular intervals, all along the
proposed road and established at suitable position that it will not get disturbed during
construction. Working benchmark (TBM) shall be tied & carried over from the Reference
Bench Mark. Pillars shall be well grouted inside the ground and on the top portion the
co‐ordinate shall be marked on steel plate with proper marking, pillar number shall be
indicated on the side of the pillar with paint. All the reference data of the pillars, such as
Northing (N), Easting (E), Reduced Level, location of pillars, pillar number shall also be
recorded for future reference. Checks shall be made on these Bench Mark Pillars once in
every two months and adjustment, if any, shall be done and recorded. If any reference
point of centerline is destroyed during construction, it shall be remarked again
immediately by the help of reference co‐ordinate of the bench Mark Pillars & noted. The
markers of the centerline shall be maintained properly till required for the execution of
work. On construction reaching the formation level stage, the centerline shall again be
set out to check all the salient feature of the road as preapproved design.
 Original Ground Levels (OGL) will be recorded at every 10 m longitudinal interval in
straight aligned portion and at every 5 m interval in curve portions. Longitudinal and
cross‐sectional profiles of the existing road and adjoining land shall be prepared at
every 10 m interval to indicate the existing topographical feature and profile along the
road centerline.
 Work consists of Clearing & Grubbing (C&G) the existing ground for the construction of
new carriageway and widening / strengthening of the existing carriageway as per
MORT&H specification Clause 200. Clearing & Grubbing operation consists of cutting,
removing of trees, stripping of topsoil & disposing of all materials up to 150 mm
thickness and compaction of the ground support in embankment. Before start of C&G
operation toe points will be calculated at interval of 50 m for Plain and 20 m for Curves
taking into account formation levels and Ground levels. Alignment with respect to
design centerline and toe points shall be marked on the ground.
 Preservation of Properties / Amenities
 Road side trees, Electric & Telephone Pole, Fences, Signs, Buildings, Pipelines and other
Highways facilities falling outside the toe line of the road embankment shall not be
disturbed. Suitable safeguard wherever required will be provided.
 During clearing and grubbing, the Contractor shall take all adequate precautions against
soil erosion ,water pollution, etc., and where required, undertake additional works to
that effect vide Clause 306of MORT&H. Before start of operations, the Contractor shall
submit to the Engineer for approval, his work plan including the procedure to be
followed for disposal of waste materials, etc., and the schedules for carrying out
temporary and permanent erosion control works as stipulated in Clause 306.3 of
MORT&H.
 Removal of Trees and Stumps
 After setting out, all trees, stumps etc. falling within the excavation and fill line will
be removed by excavator & suitable equipment’s to such depth below ground
level to depth that in no case they fall within 500 mm from sub‐grade. Pits created
by this operation will be back filled with soil to required compaction.
 Stripping & Disposal of Top Soil
 After removal of stumps all vegetation such as roots, under‐growth, grass and
other deleterious materials, unsuitable for incorporation in the embankment or
shoulder shall be removed upto150mm depth by Dozer or other suitable
equipment between fill lines as per MORT&H Specifications and stock piled at the
suitable location or shall be disposed off. The stockpile topsoil may be used for
covering embankment slopes etc.
 Compaction of Original Ground
 Original Ground will be leveled, scarified, mixed with water to bring it within OMC
limits and then compacted by rolling to achieve required dry density to facilitate
placement of first layer of embankment / Sub‐grade.
 Where difference between the sub‐grade level & ground level is less than 0.50 m
and ground does not have 97% relative compaction with respect to maximum dry
density, the ground will be loosened up to 0.50 m below sub‐grade level, watered
and compacted to 97% of maximum dry density. Embankment and Sub‐grade
work will be started after density is achieved.
 Wherever, Black Cotton Soil or any other unsuitable material is encountered in the
Original Ground(embankment foundation) within a depth of 0.50 m from
Sub‐grade bottom, unsuitable soil will be removed up to the depth required
depending upon the test of FSI.
 METHODOLOGY‐ EMBANKMENT & SUB‐GRADE FILLING
 Work consist of providing, laying and compacting approved earth in layers as per specifications
to form the part of embankment and sub‐grade. Some earthwork in central verge and earthen
shoulders is also there.
 Material
 It shall be soil, morum, gravel, fly ash , pond ash, reclaimed material from pavement or a
mixture of these. Only selected material conforming to MORT&H Specification Clause 305.2
shall be used for embankment filling. Materials to be used as sub‐grade will also be tested for
4 days soaked CBR and the material also fulfilling the CBR requirement will only be used for
sub‐grade filling.
 The material used shall be free from logs, stumps, roots, rubbish and any other deleterious
material. Cohesive non‐swelling soil will be provided as per Standards and Specifications and
approved material.
 Transportation of Material
 Top soil of the approved borrow area will first be removed and stockpiled before excavating
the suitable soil for transportation to site. Suitable material will be transported to work site
by Dumpers of appropriate capacity. The earth will be dumped at pre‐calculated spacing on
the original compacted ground or previous layer of earth, as the case may be.
 Spreading material in layers and bringing to appropriate moisture content
 Before dumping the borrow soil at site, toe points are calculated and toe line will be marked
on site at suitable intervals (50 m). Embankment and Sub‐grade material will be spread by
bulldozer of suitable capacity. Motor Grader with hydraulic control will be used to spread
material in layers of uniform thickness not exceeding 250 mm compacted.
 Clods or hard lumps of earth will be broken to maximum size of 75 mm when being placed in
embankment and 50 mm when being placed in sub‐grade.
 Earthwork for embankment shall be done in 250 mm compacted thickness layers.
Sub‐grade shall be done in 250+250 mm thick two layers to achieve total
compacted thickness 500 mm.
 Natural moisture content of material will be checked at the site of placement prior
to commencement of compaction. If found to be out of agreed limits, the same will
be made good by adding water with a water tanker of suitable capacity with
sprinkler capable of applying water uniformly with a controlled rate of flow .
Uniform moisture content (within OMC limits) will be obtained throughout the
depth of layer by Mixing with grader/harrowing. If material is too wet it will be
brought to optimum moisture content by aeration and exposing to sun.
 First layer of embankment shall be requiring, generally, varying thickness to
eliminate the profile deficiency of original ground. Spreading of loose soil,
therefore, shall be regulated in most befitting manner suiting the site requirements
for proper profile, grade and line.
 Construction of embankment or sub-
grade
 Compaction
 The compaction will be done by Single Drum Vibratory Rollers of 10‐Ton capacity in layers with sufficient
passes to achieve required compaction. Necessary quality control as per specification willbe conducted
during and after compaction of each layer. Compaction requirement shall be at least95% of the MDD of the
fill material for embankment construction and 97% of the MDD for sub-gradeconstruction. Field density
should be checked at one set of ten measurements of density for each 3000 sqm of compacted area for
embankment and in sub grade, at least one set of ten density measurements shall be taken for every 2000
sqm.
 When density measurement reveals any soft areas in the embankment, these shall be compactedfurther. If
in spite of that the specified compaction is not achieved, the material in the soft area willbe removed and
replaced by approved material, compacted to the specification. Subsequent layerswill be placed only after
the laid layer passes the quality criteria as per specification.

 Finishing Operations
 Geometric checks shall be performed upon completion of each layer of the embankment inaccordance
with the requirements of Q3 level of Quality Assurance specified in IRC SP:57 2000.
 Earth Work for Widening of Existing Road Embankment
 When existing embankment & sub‐grade is to be widened and its slopes are steeper than 1
vertical on 4 horizontal, horizontal benches will be cut in to the old slope for ensuring
adequate bond with fresh embankment / sub‐grade material. Construction of embankment
layer by layer against sloping embankment will have regular benching on sloping side 200
mm vertical and 300 mm horizontal. One bench in advance with respect to layer in progress
will remain ready for facilitating working of roller fully up to end without giving chance of
bulges in end and also to provide compaction of sloping side through benches. In widening
portion where width will be insufficient to permit the use of conventional roller, small
vibratory roller / plate compactors / power rammers will be employed for providing proper
compaction as per MORT&H Clause 305.4.1.
 Earth work for Embankment & Sub‐grade to be placed against sloping ground
 If embankment and sub‐grade is to be placed against sloping ground the latter will be
benched /scarified for better bonding.
 QA AND QC PLAN
1. SOIL : FOR EMBANKMENT, SUBGRADE CONSTRUCTION AND CUT FORMATION
TOLERAN
EQUIPMENTS
MOSRTH MORT&H CE ON
TEST STAGE CHARACTERISTIC ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA SAMPLE SIZE METHOD OF TEST USED FOR
Clause No. FREQUENCY SURFACE
TEST
LEVELS
Not < 15.2 KN/m3 for
Embankment up to 3m
Not < 16.0 KN/m3 for
2 Test Per As per IS As per IS
MDD* Lab Test MDD Value Embankment more than
3000m3 2720 part 8 2720 pt 8
3m Modified
Not < 17.5 KN/m3 for Sub proctor
Grade apparatus
2 Test Per As per IS
Gradation Lab Test Grain Size
3000m3 2720 pt 4
Not less than design CBR 1 Test Per As per IS
CBR Lab Test CBR Value <19mm
.i.e. 15% 3000m3 2720 pt 16
+20m
2 Test Per 425 mic As per IS Cassagrand
305 LL & PL Lab Test LL value Not More than 50% m
3000m3 down 2720 PT 5 s apparatus
-20mm
/ Cone
2 Test Per 425 mic As per IS
PI Lab Test PI value Not More than 25% Penetromet
3000m3 down 2720 PT 5
er
One set per
Not < 95% for 30002 for
Embankment embankmen
sand
FIELD Field Degree of t As per IS
replacemen
DENSITY Test compaction One set per 2720 PT 28
t method
Not < 97% for Sub-grade & 2000 for
shoulders sub-grade &
shoulder

* Not applicable for light weight fill like cinder and fly
ash
 Determination of water content (BIS:2720 Part 2)
 Grain size analysis (BIS:2720 Part 4)
 Determination of liquid and plastic limit (BIS:2720 Part 5)
 Proctor test(BIS:2720 Part 8)
 Laboratory determination of CBR(California Bearing Ratio) (BIS:2720 Part 16)
 Determination of free swell index (BIS:2720 Part 40)
 Determination of dry density of soil in place by sand replacement method
(BIS:2720 Part 28)
 Direct shear test (BIS:2720 Part 13)
 Classification of Soil as per BIS-1498-1970.
 Object:
 To determine the water content of a soil sample by oven
drying method / sand bath
 method / Rapid moisture meter method.
 Apparatus:
 1) Non-corrodible airtight containers.
 2) Heat resistant tray – 5 to 7 cm deep.
 3) Rapid moisture meter and absorbent (calcium carbide).
 4) Oven, balance and heater / stove etc
INTRODUCTION:
Most of the methods for soil identification and classification are based on
certain physical properties of the soils. The commonly used properties for the
classification are the grain size distribution, liquid limit and plasticity index. These
properties have also been used in empirical design methods for flexible pavements,
and in deciding the suitability of sub grade soils. Grain size analysis also known as
mechanical analysis of soils is the determination of the percent of individual grain
sizes present in the sample. The mechanical analysis consists of two parts:
(i) the determination of the amount and proportion of coarse material by the use of
sieves.
(ii) the analysis for the fine grained fraction by sedimentation method.
The sieve analysis is a simple test consisting of sieving a measured quantity of material through
successively smaller sieves. The weight retained each sieve is expressed as a percentage of the
total sample. The sedimentation principle has been used for finding the grain size distribution of
fine soil fraction; two methods are commonly used
(i) Pipette method and (ii) Hydrometer method.
The grain size distribution of soil particles of size greater than 75 micron is determined by sieving
the soil on a set of sieves of decreasing sieve opening placed one below the other and separating
out the different size ranges. Two methods of sieve analysis are as follows:
(i) wet sieving applicable to all soils and
(ii) dry sieving applicable only to soils, which have negligible proportion of clay and silt. The soils
received from the field is divided into two parts: one, the fraction retained on 2mm sieve and
the other passing 2mm sieve. The sieve analysis also may be carried out separately for these
two fractions. The fraction retained on 2mm sieve may be subjected to dry sieving using bigger
sieves and that passing 2mm sieve may be subjected to wet sieving; however if this fraction
consists of single grained soil with negligible fines passing 0.075mm size, dry sieving may be
carried out
 INTRODUCTION:
The physical properties of fine-grained soils, especially of clay differ much at
different water contents. Clay may be almost in liquid state, or it may show plastic behavior
or may be very stiff depending on the moisture content. Plasticity is a property of
outstanding importance for clayey soils, which may be explained as the ability to undergo
changes in shape without rupture.
Waterberg in 1911 proposed a series of tests, mostly empirical, for the determination of
the consistency and plastic properties of fine soils. These are known as Waterberg limits
and indices.
Liquid limit: defined as the minimum water content at which the soil will flow under the
application of a very small shearing force.
Plastic limit: defined as the minimum moisture content at which the soil remains in a
plastic state.
Plasticity Index (PI): is defined as the numerical difference between the liquid
limit and plastic limits. PI thus indicates the range of moisture content over
which the soil is in a plastic condition.
Shrinkage limit: is the maximum moisture content at which further reduction
in water content does not cause reduction in volume. It is the minimum water
content that can occur in a clayey soil sample, which is completely saturated.
Consistency limits and the plasticity index vary for different soil types. Hence
these properties are generally used in the identification and classification of
soils.
 Atterberg limit
Casagrande Apparatus graph
 Introduction:-compaction of soil is a mechanical process by which the soil particle
are constrained to be packed more closely together by reducing the air voids. soil
compaction causes decrease in air void and consequently in dry density resulting
in increase in shear strength. The possibility of future settlement or
compressibility decrease and also tendency or subsequent changes in moisture
content decreases degree of compaction is usually measure quantitatively by dry
density .
 Methods:- In the laboratory various type of compacting equipment and test
method have been developed for determine in the water content dry density or
moisture density relationship of soil. These test may be classified as
 i)static compaction applying the force
 ii) Dynamic compaction test by ramming , which are commonly adopted in
laboratory.
 Introduction:-CBR test was developed by the California state highway department as a
method for evaluating the strength of sub grade soil and other pavement material for
the design and construction of flexible pavement .The test CBR result have been
correlated with flexible pavement thickness requirement for highway and air fields. The
CBR test has also been standardised by the bureau of Indian standard(BIS).

 The basic principle in CBR test is by causing a cylindrical plunger of 50mm diameter to
penetrate into the specimen of soil or pavement component material at a rate of
1.25mm/minute. The load required for 2.5mm and 5mm penetration of the plunger
into the soil or material tested are recorded .

 These standard load value given below may directly be used to compute the CBR value of
the test material.
Penetration(mm) standard load(kg) unit standard load
(kg/cm2)
2.5 1370 70
5.0 2055 105
CBR TESTING TYPICAL CBR GRAPH
APPARATUS
 Introduction:-free swell index(FSI) of soils is the increase in volume of soil on
submergence in water , without any external constraints .
 Procedure:
 Take two 10 grams soil specimens of oven dry soil passing through 425-micron IS
sieve. Each soil specimen shall be poured in each of the two glass graduated
cylinders of 100ml capacity. One cylinder shall then be filled with kerosene oil and
the other with distilled water up to the 100ml mark. After removal of entrapped
air the soils in both the cylinders shall be allowed to settle. Sufficient time (not less
than 24 hours) shall be allowed for the soil sample to attain equilibrium state of
volume without any further change in the volume of the soils. The final volume of
soils in each of the cylinders shall be read out.
 Introduction:-The sand
replacement method is
used to determine in-place
density. The sand
replacement method of
determination of in situ
density uses a sand-pouring
cylinder, cylindrical
calibrating container, tray
with a central circular hole,
and a chisel.
 Introduction:-the direct shear test is a laboratory or field test used by
geotechnical engineers to measure the shear strength properties of soil or
rock material.
 It is simple and faster to operate .as thinner specimen are used in shear
box, they facilitate drainage or pour water from saturated sample in less
time. This test also useful to study friction between to material.
 It measure the amount of the shear area in cm2.
Load each and of the specimen in the tensile grips.
 Apply a force at controlled rate to the specimen until it breaks and record
the maximum force and type of joint failure
 The various soil classification system that have been in used in
the field of highway engineering are:-
 A)Textural Soil Classification
 B) Burmister Soil Classification
 C) Casagrande Soil Classification
 D) Highway Research Board(HRB) Classification
 E) Federal Avation Agency(FAA) classification
 This standard covers a system for classification and identification of
soils for general engineering purposes . The information given in
this standard should be considered as for guidance only for treating
the soil for engineering purposes.
 IS-1498 Based Upon Unified Soil Classification System, it is based
upon grain size analysis and Atterberg limits.