ELASTOMER

Rubber
■ A compound is mixed of the polymer, fillers, softeners, curatives and other
additives.
■ The compound used are:
■ either preformed by calendering, coating on a fabric or by extrusion to
become a component in a final product
■ or by calendering or extrusion given the right shape for the final product
■ or for filling the cavity in a mould.
■ For many products like tyres, hoses and belts the preformed parts
have to be assembled to the shape of the final product.
■ The product is then cured at a temperature of 140 - 200 °C to receive
its requested final properties. Through the curing which is the
crosslinking process, the rubber compound properties are changed
from a plastic to an elastic state.
■ In some cases the curing is done at the same time as the forming of
the product i.e. for extruded products like sealing profiles and cables.
■ The cured product may in some cases pass a post-process e.g. post-
curing or surface treatment.
■ Finally a quality control operation is done.
 Thermoplastic elastomers
■ The material is normally supplied ready mixed directly from the raw material
supplier.
■ The shaping of the products is done by heating the material to a temperature
above the melting point. After the forming process the product is cooled to
room temperature. That is when the material will receive its properties.
■ The main processes used are: o Calendering o Extrusion o Moulding by
injection in a cavity
■ The final product has to pass a quality control operation.
 Special features
■ The processing properties are highly depended on the composition of the rubber
compound.
■ To achieve the expected properties of a product a proper mixing procedure is
essential.
■ The final properties for the rubber product is achieved when the curing process is
taking place at a temperature of normally 140 – 200 °C whereby the rubber is cross-
linked and obtains its elastic state.
■ The elastomer and hence the compound is viscous, therefore processing (e.g.
extrusion or moulding) of the uncured compound is improved at elevated
temperature. The processing temperature often goes up to 100 - 110 °C and is
thereby coming close to the curing temperature. The compound must be
compounded so that scorching (start of curing reaction) will not start at the
processing temperatures.
■ At the same time the curing reaction – being depended on time and temperature -
must be as fast as possible to admit short curing time and contribute to a high
productivity.
■ It was the American, Charles Nelson Goodyear, who in 1839 after many
years of unsuccessful attempts and great personal sacrifice discovered that
if you mixed a small amount of sulphur into the rubber and heated it then it
obtained the desired properties.
■ This basic discovery, which Goodyear patented in 1844, is what is known
today as vulcanisation (also called curing).
■ Vulcanisation is a process in which rubber, by a change of its chemical
structure,Charles Nelson Goodyear using cross-linking, is transformed to an
elastic state.
■ Vulcanisation improves and amplifies the elastic properties of rubber over a
greater temperature range.
■ The discovery of vulcanisation is so vitally important that the rubber industry
would never have been able to develop to what it is today without it
■ There are plenty of different rubber types available but still the largest
single type used is natural rubber (NR), produced of latex from the
tree Hevea Brasiliensis.
■ The synthetic types of polymers, mainly manufactured from oil, have
been developed either to replace or to be used together with NR or to
make polymers with properties superior of NR in special areas,
typically with better high temperature resistance, better outdoor
resistance and/or resistance to fuels and oils.
■ A common classification of different types of rubber is:
• General purpose elastomers • Special purpose elastomers • Speciality
elastomers
■ General purpose elastomers comprise:
• Natural rubber (NR) • Polyisoprene rubber (IR) • Styrene-butadiene
rubber (SBR) • Butadiene rubber (BR)
These types have good physical properties, good process ability and
compatibility, are generally economical and are typical polymers used in
tyres and mechanical rubber goods with demand for good abrasion
resistance and tensile properties.
General purpose types constitute the largest volume of polymer used.
■ Special purpose elastomers comprise:
• Ethylene-propylene rubber (EPM and EPDM) • Butyl rubber (IIR) •
Chloroprene rubber (CR) • Acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber or Nitrile rubber
(NBR)
They have all unique properties which cannot be matched by the general
purpose types and are very important for manufacturing of industrial and
automotive rubber products
■ The Speciality elastomers are a great number of polymers with very
special properties, in many cases of great importance for the
automotive-, aircraft-, spaceand offshore industries.
■ Some of these polymers are:
• Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSM) • Acrylic Rubber (ACM) • Silicone
Rubber (PMQ/PV/MQ/VMQ) • Floursilicone Rubber (FPQ) • Fluor
elastomers (FPM/FFKM/FEPM) • Urethane Rubber (AU/EU) •
Epichlorohydrine Rubber (CO/ECO/GECO)
 Properties
■ Ageing resistance
■ All elastomeric materials age more or less with time. The ageing process can
be divided into two main reactions, thermal and oxidative degradation.
■ Cold stiffening
■ When an elastomer is cooled down its rigidity increases and when it reaches
what is known as the glass transition temperature, the elastomer becomes
completely rigid and brittle. When heated however the elastomer regains its
original properties. There are several methods of determining the
elastomer’s cold stiffening properties like TR-test and Gehman test.The
brittle point is the temperature at which the rubber becomes as hard as
glass, brittle and breaks when impacted.
■ Compression set
■ By compression set is meant the permanent set that is obtained when the
load is removed from a compressed test piece. The compression set is
given as a percentage of the deformation. An acceptable, low,
compression set is important for products which are used for sealing
purposes.
■ Creep
■ Creep is a slow accumulative deformation in the rubber when subjected
to a constant load. Classification can be done for both elongation and
compression and it is given as a percentage of the original unloaded
dimension.
■ Damping
■ If a solid rubber ball is dropped onto a hard surface, it will not bounce
back to the initial height due to the damping effect of the rubber.
Internal friction and the kinetic energy, which is transformed to heat
in the rubber, cause the damping. The damping is normally measured
by determining the rebound elasticity using an impact pendulum and
it is expressed as a percentage of the initial height of the drop.
■ Discolouration
■ An elastomeric material that comes in contact with a surface painted
in a light colour can discolour that material. The discolouration is
caused by antioxidants and softeners migrating from the rubber and
entering adjacent surfaces, such as plastic materials or painted
surfaces. The effect can be accelerated by sunlight.
■ Fatigue resistance
■ Certain elastomeric products are subjected to dynamic elongation or bending
fatigue. The fatigue resistance is different for different types of elastomer, but
can also be affected by the composition of the compound. Fatigue can be
tested using test pieces for elongation or bending. The result is given as the
number of cycles at break. The property is often tested using the products
themselves.
■ Hardness
■ The hardness of an elastomeric material is a measure of its rigidity or modulus.
This property is the one most often used in the classification of elastomers in
specifications, etc. The measurement of hardness is carried out by pressing a
measuring probe in the form of a truncated cone or a hemisphere into the
rubber. A measurement is made of how far the measuring probe can penetrate
into the rubber and the result is given in Shore A degrees or IRHD (International
Rubber Hardness Degrees)
■ Ozone resistance
■ Certain rubber materials, i.e. those with double bonds in the main molecular
chain, are prone to reaction with ozone. That leads to formation of typical
cracks which run perpendicular to the material’s direction of extension. The
ozone attack increases with increased elongation of the elastomeric
material.
■ Resistance to oils, solvents and chemicals
■ Different types of elastomers have different resistances to oils, solvents and
chemicals. These resistances can, to a certain extent, also be affected by
the compound. The resistance is often tested by immersing the test pieces
in the particular medium in question, e.g. oil. After a certain length of time,
sometimes at an elevated temperature, the changes in weight and volume
are measured, and sometimes also changes in mechanical properties.
■ Stress relaxation
■ A deformed rubber test piece, whether elongated or compressed, resists
the deformation. The opposing force decreases however with time and
that is called stress relaxation. The opposing force decreases faster at first
and thereafter at a decreasing rate, and then finally after a long time it
often decreases quickly again when the life cycle of the material is at its
end. Stress relaxation can be divided into two different processes, physical
and chemical relaxation.
■ Tear strength
■ Tear strength is an elastomeric material’s resistance to continuous tearing
and it is given in N per mm test piece thickness and determined by the
tensile testing of a test piece with a nick in it. A good tear resistance is
related to good abrasion resistance and is an important property for
products.
■ Tensile strength and elongation at break
■ The tensile strength at break is a measurement of the material’s
strength and is given in MPa. The elongation is the material’s
elongation at breaking point in %. Both the properties are determined
by tensile testing of a dumbbell test piece. Rubber materials produce,
as opposed to metals, a non-linear load/deformation curve. Standard
materials normally have a tensile strength of 7 - 20 MPa and an
elongation at break of 200 - 500 %
■ Tensile stress
■ The tensile stress of an elastomeric material is a measurement of the
elastomers resistance to extension. Tensile stress is normally given for
a particular elongation, 100 or 300 % and is given in MPa.
■ Tension set
■ The tension set is the resulting permanent deformation after the
removal of the load from an extended test piece and it is given as a
percentage of the elongation.
■ Wear resistance - abrasion
■ Wear resistance is, together with elasticity, the property that makes
rubber so useful. With regard to abrasion, rubber is superior to the
majority of materials, even steel. This is due to the fact that rubber is
soft and has a damping effect. Testing of abrasion is difficult to carry
out in the laboratory and it is also difficult to achieve a correlation
with what happens in real applications. This is why nearly all abrasion
resistance testing is carried out on finished products.
Processes

■ Curing or vulcanisation
■ Curing or vulcanisation is a process where the elastomer compound is
transformed from a yielding plastic material into an elastic material.
This is done by a sparse network of bonds being formed between the
molecules of the elastomer material. Normally sulphur is used as a
curing agent.
■ Calendering A process where you squeeze the elastomer compound
into a film (< 0.25 mm), foil (0.25 - 2 mm) or sheeting (> 2 mm).
■ Compression moulding
■ A process where the elastomer compound is inserted into a mould cavity, the mould
is closed and the products are cured. Just like making waffles.
■ Extrusion
■ A process which shapes the elastomer compound into long strips, e.g. sealing strips.
■ Injection moulding
■ A process where an injection cylinder is used to inject the elastomer compound into
a closed mould, in which the product is cured.
■ Mixing
■ Mixing is the process whereby the elastomers are mixed with ingredients such as
fillers, softeners, activators, antidegrading agents, processing aids, accelerators and
curing agents
 Materials
■ Accelerators
■ Compounding materials that facilitate and speed up the
vulcanisation.
■ The accelerators consist of complex organic compounds.
■ Activators
■ Compounding materials which facilitate (activate) the
vulcanisation reaction.
■ Antidegradant
■ Compounding materials which protect against oxidation, e.g.
antioxidants, antiozonants and waxes.
 Materials
■ Curing agents
■ Compounding materials which form cross-links during
vulcanisation. The most common are sulphur and peroxides, but
also resins and metal oxides are used
■ Fillers
■ Compounding materials which dilute the polymer. There are
normally two types of fillers: reinforcing and non-reinforcing.
■ Reinforcing fillers increase the strength of the rubber materials.
They consist of materials with small size particles as reinforcing
fillers. The most common are carbon black and silica.
■ Non-reinforcing fillers are pure diluents which reduce the price and
also impair the mechanical properties. The most common filler is
Materials
■ Plasticisers (Softeners)
■ Compounding materials which reduce the hardness of a rubber
material, e.g. oil.
■ Processing aids
■ Compounding materials which facilitate the process, e.g.
dispersing agents, peptizing agents, mould lubricant, etc.
 Terms to understand
■ PHR Parts Per Hundred Rubber (PHR).
■ This is used for the calculation of formulas. The compound ingredients are
given as parts per 100 by weight of the rubber polymer.
 Terms to understand
■ Crystallisation
■ A phenomenon which takes place in certain types of
elastomers with highly regular molecules.
■ At lower temperatures, the molecular chains arrange
themselves close together and the material hardens.
■ When the temperature is increased the material regains its
previous properties. This applies primarily to natural rubber
and chloroprene rubber.
■ Glass transition temperature
■ The middle point of the temperature interval where a
rubber material is transformed from an elastic material to a
hard and brittle glass-like material.
 Basics
■ A thermoplastic is shaped in a mould while the molten compound is being
subjected to pressure at an elevated temperature. The shape of the product is
then fixed as it cools down in the mould.
■ The thermoplastic article can be reshaped if it is reheated again. The Greek
word thermos means heat and the word plastic means mouldable.
■ Thermoplastics are not modified chemically during shaping.
■ A thermoset hardens during shaping through chemical reactions, which lead to
molecule enlargement and the forming of crosslinks into a three dimensional
network.
■ A thermoset cannot be reshaped by recycling the pressure and heat process.
After the curing reaction, the thermoset are in fact not remeltable or soluble in
solvents.
■ At sufficiently high temperatures the molecules are instead degraded by
molecular scission.
 Elastomers
■ The elastomers include materials with considerable elastic
elongation, that is to say materials which at room
temperature can normally be extended to at least double
their original lengths without rupturing and which when
the load is removed return to almost their original lengths.
■ This property can be found in polymers with easily moveable
chains of molecules.
■ In order for the molecular chains, after straightening out, that is to
say after deformation, to be able to return to their original
configuration after the load has been removed, they must be
attached to each other at certain points, which is why the
structure can be described as a three dimensional network.
Elastomer

■ A hard elastomer which can be an elastomer with so much

filler that it cannot be elongated to twice its length is
normally still considered to be an elastomer.
■ Rubber with lots of sulphur so called ebonite, is normally
considered to be rubber, but should in fact belong to the
thermosets.
■ Ebonite has so many crosslinks that a rigid network is
created.
 Rubber production
■ Production of rubber goods consists of two basic steps:
■ 1. Production of the rubber itself :
■ Natural rubber is an agricultural crop
■ Synthetic rubbers are made from petroleum
■ 2. Processing into finished goods, consisting of:
■ (a) Compounding
■ (b) Mixing
■ (c) Shaping
■ (d) Vulcanizing
 The Rubber Industries
■ Production of raw NR might be classified as an agricultural
industry because latex, the starting ingredient, is grown on
plantations in tropical climates
■ By contrast, synthetic rubbers are produced by the
petrochemical industry
■ Finally, processing into tires and other products occurs at
processor (fabricator) plants, commonly known as the rubber
industry
■ The company names include Goodyear, B. F. Goodrich, and
Michelin, all reflecting the importance of the tire
 Production of Natural Rubber
■ Natural rubber is tapped from rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis)
as latex
■ The trees are grown on plantations in Southeast Asia and other
parts of the world
■ Latex is a colloidal dispersion of solid particles of the polymer
polyisoprene in water
■ Polyisoprene (C5H8 )n is the chemical substance that comprises
rubber, and its content in the emulsion is about 30%
■ The latex is collected in large tanks, thus blending the yield of
many trees together
 Recovering the Rubber
■ The preferred method of recovering rubber from latex involves
coagulation - adding an acid such as formic acid (HCOOH);
■ coagulation takes about 12 hours
■ The coagulum, now soft solid slabs, is then squeezed through a
series of rolls which drive out most of the water and reduce
thickness to about 3 mm (1/8 in)
■ The sheets are then draped over wooden frames and dried in
smokehouses
■ Several days are normally required to complete the drying process
 Grades of Natural Rubber
■ The resulting rubber, now in a form called ribbed smoked
sheet, is folded into large bales for shipment to the processor
■ It has a characteristic dark brown color
■ In some cases, the sheets are dried in hot air rather than
smokehouses, and the term air-dried sheet is used; this is
considered to be a better grade of rubber
■ A still better grade, called pale crepe rubber, involves two
coagulation steps, followed by warm air drying
■ Its color is light tan
 Synthetic Rubber
■ Most synthetic rubbers are produced from petroleum by the
same polymerization techniques used to synthesize other
polymers
■ Unlike thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers, which are
normally supplied to the fabricator as pellets or liquid
resins, synthetic rubbers are supplied to rubber processors
in the form of large bales
■ The rubber industry has a long tradition of handling NR in
these unit loads
Compounding
■ Rubber is always compounded with additives
■ Compounding adds chemicals for vulcanization, such as
sulfur
■ Additives include fillers which act either to enhance the
rubber's mechanical properties (reinforcing fillers) or to
extend the rubber to reduce cost (non-reinforcing fillers)
■ It is through compounding that the specific rubber is
designed to satisfy a given application in terms of
properties, cost, and processability
 Carbon Black in Rubber
■ The single most important reinforcing filler in rubber is
carbon black, a colloidal form of carbon, obtained by
thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons (soot)
■ Its effect is to increase tensile strength and resistance to
abrasion and tearing of the final rubber product
■ Carbon black also provides protection from ultraviolet
radiation
■ Most rubber parts are black in color because of their carbon
black content
 Other Fillers and Additives in
Rubber
■ China clays - hydrous aluminum silicates (Al2Si2O5 (OH)4 )
provide less reinforcing than carbon black but are used when
black is not acceptable
■ Other polymers, such as styrene, PVC, and phenolics
■ Recycled rubber added in some rubber products, but usually
10% or less
■ Antioxidants; fatigue- and ozone-protective chemicals; coloring
pigments; plasticizers and softening oils; blowing agents in the
production of foamed rubber; and mold release compounds
 Mixing
■ The additives must be thoroughly mixed with the base rubber to
achieve uniform dispersion of ingredients
■ Uncured rubbers have high viscosity so mechanical working of
the rubber can increase its temperature up to 150 C (300 F)
■ If vulcanizing agents were present from the start of mixing,
premature vulcanization would result - the “rubber processor's
nightmare
Two-Stage Mixing
■ To avoid premature vulcanization, a two-stage mixing process
is usually employed
■ Stage 1 - carbon black and other non-vulcanizing additives are
combined with the raw rubber
■ The term masterbatch is used for this first-stage mixture
■ Stage 2 - after stage 1 mixing has been completed, and time
for cooling has been allowed, stage 2 mixing is carried out in
which vulcanizing agents are added
 Filament Reinforcement in
Rubber Products
■ Many products require filament reinforcement to reduce
extensibility but retain the other desirable properties of rubber
■ Examples: tires, conveyor belts
■ Filaments used for this purpose include cellulose, nylon, and
polyester
■ Fiber-glass and steel are also used (e.g., steel-belted radial tires)
■ Continuous fiber materials must be added during shaping; they
are not mixed like the other additives
 Shaping and Related Processes
■ Shaping processes for rubber products can be divided into four
basic categories:
■ 1. Extrusion
■ 2. Calendering
■ 3. Coating
■ 4. Molding and casting
■ Some products require several basic processes plus assembly work
■ Example: tires
 Extrusion
■ Screw extruders are generally used for extrusion of rubber
■ The L/D ratio of the extruder barrel is less than for
thermoplastics, typically in the range 10 to 15, to reduce
the risk of premature cross-linking
■ Die swell occurs in rubber extrudates, since the polymer is
in a highly plastic condition and exhibits the
“memory”property
■ The rubber has not yet been vulcanized
 Calendering
■ Stock is passed through a series of gaps of decreasing size made
by a stand of rotating rolls.
■ Rubber sheet thickness determined by final roll gap
 Roller Die Process
■ Combination of extrusion and calendering that results in better
quality product than either extrusion or calendering alone
Coating
■ Impregnating Fabrics with Rubber
■ An important industrial process for producing automobile tires,
conveyor belts, inflatable rafts, and waterproof cloth tents and
rain coats
 Molded Rubber Products
■ Molded rubber products include shoe soles and heals, gaskets
and seals, suction cups, and bottle stops
■ Also, many foamed rubber parts are produced by molding
■ In addition, molding is an important process in tire production
Molding Processes for Rubber
■ Principal molding processes for rubber are: (1) compression
molding, (2) transfer molding, and (3) injection molding
■ Compression molding is the most important technique because
of its use in tire manufacture
■ Curing (vulcanizing) is accomplished in the mold in all three
processes, this representing a departure from the previous
shaping methods, all of which use a separate vulcanizing step
 Vulcanization
■ The treatment that accomplishes cross-linking of elastomer
molecules, so that the rubber becomes stiffer and stronger but
retains extensibility
■ On a submicroscopic scale, the long-chain molecules of rubber
become joined at certain tie points, the effect of which is to
reduce the ability of the elastomer to flow
■ A typical soft rubber has 1 or 2 cross-links per 1000 units (mers)
■ As the number of cross-links increases, the polymer becomes
stiffer and behaves more and more like a thermosetting plastic
(hard rubber)
 Vulcanization Chemicals and
■Times
As it was first invented by Goodyear in 1839, vulcanization used
sulfur (about 8 parts by weight of S mixed with 100 parts of NR) at
140C (280F) for about 5 hours
■ Vulcanization with sulfur alone is no longer used today, due to the
long curing times
■ Various other chemicals are combined with smaller doses of sulfur
to accelerate and strengthen the treatment
■ The resulting cure time is 15-20 minutes
■ A variety of non-sulfur vulcanizing treatments have also been
developed
Tires and Other Rubber Products
■ Tires are the principal product of the rubber industry
■ Tires are about 75% of total rubber tonnage
■ Other important products:
Footwear
Seals
Shock-absorbing parts
Conveyor belts
Hose
Foamed rubber products
Sports equipment
 Tires
■ Pneumatic tires are critical components of the vehicles on which
they are used
■ Functions of vehicle tires:
Support the weight of the vehicle, passengers, and cargo
Transmit the motor torque to propel the vehicle
Absorb road vibrations and shock to provide a comfortable ride
■ Tires are used on automobiles, trucks, buses, farm tractors,
earth moving equipment, military vehicles, bicycles,
motorcycles, and aircraft
 Tire Construction
■ A tire is an assembly of many parts - a passenger car tire has
about 50 individual components; a large earthmover tire may
have as many as 175
■ The internal structure of the tire, known as the carcass, consists
of multiple layers of rubber coated cords, called plies
■ The cords are strands of nylon, polyester, fiber glass, or steel,
which provide inextensibility to reinforce the rubber in the
carcass
■ Three basic tire constructions: (a) diagonal ply, (b) belted bias,
and (c) radial ply
 Tire Production Sequence
■ Tire production can be summarized in three steps:
■ 1. Preforming of components
■ 2. Building the carcass and adding rubber strips to form the
sidewalls and treads
■ 3. Molding and curing the components into one integral piece •
■ The following descriptions of these steps are typical; there are
variations in processing depending on construction, tire size, and
type of vehicle on which the tire will be used
 Preforming of Components
■ The carcass consists of a number of components, most of
which are rubber or reinforced rubber
■ These, as well as the sidewall and tread rubber, are
produced by continuous processes and then pre-cut to size
and shape for subsequent assembly
■ The components include: bead coil, plies, inner lining, belts,
tread, and sidewall
Building the Carcass
■ The carcass is traditionally assembled using a machine
known as a building drum, whose main element is a
cylindrical arbor that rotates
Molding and Curing
■ Tire molds are usually split molds and contain the tread pattern
to be impressed on the tire
■ (1) uncured tire is placed over expandable diaphragm;
■ (2) mold is closed and diaphragm is expanded to force uncured
rubber against mold cavity, impressing tread pattern into
rubber; mold & diaphragm are heated to cure rubber
 Injection Moulding:
■ Injection moulding has a number of elements operating automatically on timed
sequences with moulding temperatures usually between 165°C and 200°C.
■ Moulding cycle:
1. Mould closes.
2. A plasticising screw rotates to force the injection of an accurate volume of pre-
plasticised rubber compound into the mould.
3.Material is directed into the mould via a system of runners to each individual cavity,
each having small injection ports.
4. Material is cured for a pre-determined time during which the plasticising screw retracts
and plasticises sufficient rubber for the next injection.
5. Mould opens and parts are removed manually or automatically by robotic or other
system.
6. Cycle is repeated.
■ During each machine cycle an operator may perform a variety of operations including:
 Compression Moulding:
■ This simpler process is slower in operation than injection moulding in that special
uncured preformed and weighed blanks are used. The process employs hydraulic presses
with pre-heated platens at (150-170°C) that in turn heat up the mould.
■ Moulding cycle:
1.Open mould and remove product from previous cycle.
2.Load required blanks into each cavity.
3. Close mould and move into hydraulic press.
4. Activate hydraulic press. The closing action causes displacement of rubber to fill each
mould cavity. To overcome certain conditions, pressure is sometimes released and the mould
"bumped" to allow air escape.
5. Cure - Time is determined as a function of material and cross section of part being
moulded.
6. Remove part(s) manually or automatically after pulling mould from press.
7. Repeat cycle.
■ Again the operator may have tasks to perform as described for injection moulding.
Extrusion:
■ Extrusion is used for either of two functions:
■ Manufacture of long lengths of cured sections for fabrication of items too
large for injection or compression moulding.
■ The production of blanks for compression moulding.
Continuous Vulcanisation:
■ Polymers utilise a manufacturing process known as Continuous
Vulcanisation for production of cured extrusion for conversion
into certain finished products as follows.
■ Two items of machinery are required for this process:
■ An extruder with a barrel and screw, and a die of correct cross-
section at the outlet end.
■ A heating source to cure the rubber which may be one of the
following:
– A hot air oven.
– A microwave unit/hot air oven combination.
– A specialised bath containing molten salt.
 Continuous Vulcanisation
■ The "Continuous Vulcanisation" process is as follows:
■ Strip rubber is fed into the extruder. It is then plasticised by the
screw and extruded through the die orifice. The extruder operates
under controlled conditions of temperature and screw speed.
■ The continuous extrudate is passed down the heating medium which
causes it to cure. Again, speed and temperature are accurately
controlled.
■ The emerging cured profile is cooled and cut to length automatically
or rolled onto drums for subsequent secondary operations.
■ This process invariably involves a line length of as much as l00 feet,
and optional operations may utilise a U-format to economise on
space.
 SBR
■ Styrene-Butadiene rubber (SBR or Styrene-butadiene) is
a synthetic rubber comprising of styrene and butadiene
monomers. The random copolymer has characteristics like
natural rubber and contains:

■ Styrene content in the range of 10-25% contributing to good

wearing and bonding characteristics
■ While the butadiene unit is composed approximately 60 to
70% trans-1,4; 15 to 20% cis-1,4; and 15 to 20% 1,2
configurations for the polymer at 50°C
 SBR
■ Key benefits of SBR include:
■ Abrasion resistance 
■ Perfect impact strength
■ Good resilience 
■ High tensile strength
■ Main applications of styrene butadiene rubber include
■ tires and tire products,
■ automotive parts and
■ mechanical rubber goods.

■ Asahi Kasei, Lion Elastomers, Versalis (Eni Group), Kumho Petrochemical etc. are some of
the key producers of SBR.
Structure and Properties of SBR
■ SBR manufacturing method was first developed in Germany in
1930s when IG Farben's Walter Bock and Eduard Tschunkur
polymerized a synthetic rubber called Buna-S from butadiene
and styrene in an aqueous emulsion.
■ Then the first solution polymerized random SBR grades were
produced commercially by Firestone and Phillips during 1960s.
SBR
■ Today, there are two major types of SBR with different properties based
on their manufacturing process:
■ Emulsion SBR (e-SBR) - Hot SBR or Cold SBR
■ Solution SBR (s-SBR)
 Emulsion SBR (e-SBR)
■ It can be produced by free-radical emulsion polymerization of styrene
and butadiene either at 50 to 60°C (hot emulsion SBR) or at about 5°C
(cold emulsion SBR).
■ The hot emulsion SBR process, which was developed first, leads to a
more branched polymer than the cold emulsion process.
■ SBR grades produced using this process have exceptional processing
characteristics such as low mill shrinkage, good dimensional stability,
and good extrusion characteristics
■ Cold SBR has a better abrasion resistance and, consequently, provides
better tread wear and dynamic properties.
■ It also exhibits superior mechanical properties such as tensile strength
compared to grades produced by the hot emulsion polymerization route
 e-SBR
■ Key Features
■ Green strength becomes low with increasing oil extension 
■ Low resilience and low tensile strength 
■ Outstanding resistance to abrasion 
■ Low resistance to oil, other hydrocarbon fluids and ozone 
■ Hot polymers are difficult to process with low green strength 
■ Poor tear strength 
■ High styrene resins have good low-temperature properties but stiffen 
 Solution SBR (s-SBR)
■ Solution SBR is produced by termination-free*, anionic solution polymerization
of styrene and butadiene with alkyl lithium initiator (e.g., butyllithium) in a
hydrocarbon solvent, usually hexane or cyclohexane.

*It enables the synthesis of polymers with a very narrow molecular weight
distribution and less chain branching.

■ Solution SBR has a narrower molecular weight distribution, higher molecular

weight, and higher cis-1,4-polybutadiene content than emulsion
polymerization SBR.

■ s-SBR rarely has more than 2% non-rubber materials in its finished

form while e-SBR may have an emulsifier (soap) content of up to 5%
and nonrubber materials sometimes in excess of10%
s-SBR
■ Key Features:
■ Good resilience and tensile strength 
■ Outstanding resistance to abrasion and fatigue 
■ Low resistance to oil, other hydrocarbon fluids and ozone
Styrene Butadiene Rubber Vs Natural Rubber
■ While most of the properties of SBR are comparable with NR, but in some respects like
■ Disadvantages include:
■ Low elongation at break
■ Low hot tear strength
■ Hysteresis, resilience
■ heat build-up
■ But the addition of resins and reinforcing fillers adequately improve these properties.
■ However, there are properties which makes it superior over natural rubber. These
include:
■ Better processability, 
■ Slightly Better heat aging 
■  Better abrasion resistance and resistance to degradation (under heat)
■ Also, scorch problems are less likely to occur with SBR than with NR.
 SBR
■ Overall, the most important factors in the commercial viability of
SBR making it material of choice over other rubbers are:
■ Wide availability
■ Low cost compared with those of all other synthetic rubbers, 
■ Ability to accept high filler levels, 
■ Relatively stable price compared with that of NR and 
■ Overall properties on a cost/performance basis
 Processing and Compounding Synthetic
Rubber - SBR
■ Unlike several other thermoplastics or thermosets (which are supplied in pellets
or liquid resins form), SBR is available to rubber processors in the form of large
bales.
■ The processing of rubbers starts by mixing elastomers and additives. After that
rubbers are shaped by using different kinds of processing methods.

■ SBR is often compounded with additives such as:

■ Sulfur for vulcanization
■ Reinforcing or non-reinforcing fillers to enhance its mechanical properties or to
extend the rubber to reduce cost
■ Thanks to compounding, the styrene butadiene rubber further enhanced to
satisfy a given application in terms of properties, cost, and processability.
 Fillers
■ Carbon Black – Reinforcing Filler - Carbon black is a colloidal form of carbon obtained by
thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons (Soot). It:
– Increases tensile strength and resistance to abrasion and tearing
– Provides protection from ultraviolet radiation
– These enhancements are especially important in tires
■ China Clays (e.g. - hydrous aluminum silicates) - It is less reinforcing than carbon black,
however, it is used for non-black rubber applications
■ Calcium carbonate is a non-reinforcing filler and mainly added to reduce cost. Due to large
particle size, it does not 'bond' to the polymer in the same way as reinforcing fillers.
■ Silica can serve both reinforcing and non-reinforcing functions. It provides dimensional
stability, improved thermal conductivity, and good electrical insulation properties at a low cost.
■ Reclaimed (Recycled) rubber is also added as a filler in some rubber product
■ Fiberglass and steel are also used as reinforcements.
■ Filament reinforcement – It is used to reduce extensibility but retains the other desirable
properties. For example, extensively used in tires and conveyor belts
 SBR
■ More key additive types very often used in SBR processing include
fatigue- and ozone-protective chemicals; blowing agents in the production of
foamed rubber; flame retardants; curatives; processing aids; mold release
compounds etc.

■ After compounding, the shaping of rubber is further done by extrusion,

calendaring, coatings, compression molding, injection molding or casting.

■ The processing of rubbers is quite difficult. Rubber has high viscosity and that
is why high shear forces are needed in the processing. Vulcanization poses
restrictions too.
■ The processing temperature of rubbers is typically 70-140°C.
Optimizing SBR Properties – Rubber Blending

■ SBR often blended or copolymerized with other polymers or

chemically modified to further enhance its basic properties. The
addition of small amounts of suitable rubber may improve
properties such as oil or ozone resistance or improve processing
behavior.
■ However, at times there are certain properties which are
adversely affected by non-compatible rubber blends such as
tensile strength, low-temperature behavior and co
vulcanizability.
■ SBR is compatible with NR, BR, EPDM, NBR, and CR.
Major Applications of SBR
■ The major use of SBR is in the production of tires, particularly car
and lightweight vehicles tires.
■ Benefits offered by SBR such as low rolling resistance, high traction during
braking, low abrasion etc. makes it an ideal material for tire applications.
■ Cold SBR is used for lighter duty tires and other mechanical goods. SBR is
neither suitable for truck tire treads nor for elastic thread for golf ball
manufacture.
■ Solution SBR is generally more expensive than the e-SBR and is used in
Specialty applications.
■ s-SBR consists of rubber with different styrene and vinyl levels both of
which raise the Tg and hence the wet grip.
■ This is particularly useful in high-performance radial car tires and motorcycle
treads.
 SBR
■ Other automotive applications where SBR is blended with other elastomers
include belts, hoses, seals, and various extruded and molded items.
■ Non-tire and non-automotive uses of SBR are in industries that require hoses,
belts, gaskets, or seals.
■ SBR fulfills the key requirements for these applications like end use and service,
trouble-free processability as well as volume cost & availability of raw material.
■ SBR is also widely used in footwear (shoe soles). The main requirements for
rubber sole compounds are abrasion and flex resistance, hardness, traction,
shape retention etc.
■ Other applications of SBR include various kinds of solid wheels; roll covers;
coated fabrics; and electrical (wire and cable) insulation.
■ The rubber hose is used for lining, insulation or cover which protects from
deteriorating. Properties which make SBR suitable material for choice are its
abrasion and degradation resistance.