Discussants:

AGAPITO, QUEENTRISHA
BARELA, CYRIL D.
BUMANGLAD, MARICAR R.
CUBINAR, EZRA
RAMOS, GLORY FAITH T.
define important terms about
research.
familiarize with Statistical Treatments
Apply the Research Terms and
Statistical Treatments
Exploratory research
 It allows the researcher to familiarize him/herself with the problem or concept to
be studied, and perhaps generate hypotheses to be tested.

 It helps determine the best research design, data collection method and selection
of subjects, and sometimes it even concludes that the problem does not exist!

 It test concepts before they are put in the marketplace, always a very costly
endeavor. In concept testing, consumers are provided either with a written
concept or a prototype for a new, revised or repositioned product, service or
strategy.
 It is meant to provide information that is useful in reaching conclusions or
decision-making.
 It is divided into two:

Descriptive research and Casual research

- provides data about -
the population
or universe being studied.

 It tends to be quantitative in nature that is to say in the form of numbers that

can be quantified and summarized.
 escriptive research tatistical
Research
 It provides data about the population or universe being studied.
 But it can only describe the "who, what, when, where and how" of a situation,
not what caused it.
A. Observation
is a primary method of collecting data by human, mechanical, electrical or
electronic means.
1. participant and nonparticipant observation, depending on whether the researcher chooses to be part of the
situation s/he is studying (e.g. studying social interaction of tour groups by being a tour participant would
be participant observation)
2. obtrusive and unobtrusive (or physical trace) observation, depending on whether the subjects being studied
can detect the observation (e.g. hidden microphones or cameras observing behaviour and doing garbage
audits to determine consumption are examples of unobtrusive observation)
3. observation in natural or contrived settings, whereby the behaviour is observed (usually unobtrusively)
when and where it is occurring, while in the contrived setting the situation is recreated to speed up the
behavior
4. Disguised and non-disguised observation, depending on whether the subjects being observed are aware that
they are being studied or not. In disguised observation, the researcher may pretend to be someone else, e.g.
"just" another tourist participating in the tour group, as opposed to the other tour group members being
aware that s/he is a researcher.
5. Structured and unstructured observation, which refers to guidelines or a checklist being used for the
aspects of the behaviour that are to be recorded; for instance, noting who starts the introductory
conversation between two tour group members and what specific words are used by way of introduction.
6. Direct and indirect observation, depending on whether the behaviour is being observed as it occurs or after
the fact, as in the case of TV viewing, for instance, where choice of program and channel flicking can all be
recorded for later analysis.
B. Survey technique
It involves the collection of primary data about subjects, usually by selecting a
representative sample of the population or universe under study, through the
use of a questionnaire
 Telephone- The use of the telephone has been found to be one of the most
inexpensive, quick and efficient ways of surveying respondents.
 Self-administered- Any survey technique that requires the respondent to
complete the questionnaire him/herself is referred to as a self-administered
survey.
 Interview- Face-to-face interviews are a direct communication, primary
research collection technique.
 When the objective is to determine which variable might be causing a certain
behavior, i.e. whether there is a cause and effect relationship
between variables, causal research must be undertaken.
A means for exploring and
understanding the meaning
individuals or groups ascribe to a
social or human problem.
A means for testing objective
theories by examining the
relationship among variables.
These variables, in turn, can be
measured, typically on
instruments, so that numbered
data can be analyzed using
statistical procedures.
 It is an approach to inquiry that combines or associates both qualitative and
quantitative forms.

 It involves philosophical assumptions, the use of qualitative and quantitative

approaches, and the mixing of both approaches in a study.
 The term “statistical treatment” is a catch all term which means to apply any
statistical method to your data. Treatments are divided into two
groups: descriptive statistics, which summarize your data as a graph
or summary statistic and inferential statistics, which make predictions
and test hypotheses about your data.

 Classifying data into commonly known patterns is a tremendous help and is

intricately related to statistical treatment of data.

 measures of central tendencies like mean, median and mode.

 Data Analysis: Applying any statistical method —
like regression or calculating a mean — to data.

 Factor Analysis: Any combination of factor levels is called a treatment.

 “statistical treatment” is a catch all term which means to apply any statistical
method to your data.

 Finding standard deviations and sample standard errors,

 Finding T-Scores or Z-Scores.
 Calculating Correlation coefficients.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS:

It summarizes your data as a graph

INFERENTIAL

It makes predictions and test hypotheses about your data.

 Independent variables in factor analysis can have two or more different
conditions (called levels).

Daily Weekly Monthly

Reading Treatment1 Treatment 4 Treatment 7
Intervention
Effective Treatment 2 Treatment 5 Treatment 8
Not Effective Treatment 3 Treatment 6 Treatment 9
 This is we’re asked to summarize the data and analysis portion of your
experiment, including measurements and formulas used.

(e.g. level, age, gender, etc.)

Formula:
Where: % = Percent
f = Frequency
N = Number of cases
2. Mean Used to get average or
central value (e.g. level, extent,
status, etc.)
3. T-test
 It is a strong statistical technique that is used to show difference between two or
more means or components through significance tests.
Where,
F = Anova Coefficient
MST = Mean sum of squares due to treatment
MSE = Mean sum of squares due to error


 Where,
SST = Sum of squares due to treatment
p = Total number of populations
n = The total number of samples in a population
 Where,
SSE = Sum of squares due to error
S = Standard deviation of the samples
N = Total number of observations
 Average
Calculate the Anova coefficient. Types of Number Standard
Domestic
Animals of animals Deviation
Solution: animals
Construct the following table: Dogs 5 12 2
p=3 Cats 5 16 1
n=5
N = 15 Hamsters 5 20 4
x̄ = 16
SST = ∑n (x−x̄)2
SST= 5(12−16)2+5(16−16)2+11(20−16)2 Animal
n x S S2
= 160 name
MST = SSTp−1 Dogs 5 12 2 4
MST = 1603−1
MST = 80 Cats 5 16 1 1
SSE = ∑ (n−1)S2 Hamster 5 20 4 16
SSE = 4×4 + 4×1 + 4×16
SSE = 84
MSE= SSEN−p
MSE=841538415−3
MSE = 7
F = MSTMSE
F = 807
F = 11.429
4.

 Used to find the degree of the association of two sets of variables, X and Y or
to test the significant relationship between the two variables Multiple
Correlation Used to test if the independent variables have influence on the
dependent variables


 r = .67. That is, as height increases so does basketball performance. This
makes sense. However, if we plotted the variables the other way around and
wanted to determine whether a person's height was determined by their
basketball performance (which makes no sense), we would still get r = .67.
This is because the Pearson correlation coefficient makes no account of any
theory behind why you chose the two variables to compare.
 It is important to realize that the Pearson correlation coefficient, r, does not
represent the slope of the line of best fit. Therefore, if you get a Pearson
correlation coefficient of +1 this does not mean that for every unit increase in
one variable there is a unit increase in another. It simply means that there is
no variation between the data points and the line of best fit.
 must be either interval or ratio measurements (see our Types of
Variable guide for further details).
 The variables must be approximately normally distributed (see our Testing for
Normality guide for further details).
 There is a linear relationship between the two variables (but see note at
bottom of page). We discuss this in the next section.
 Outliers are either kept to a minimum or are removed entirely. We also
discuss this on page 2.
 There is homoscedasticity of the data. This is also discussed on page 2.
 To test to see whether your two variables form a linear relationship you
simply need to plot them on a graph (a scatterplot, for example) and visually
inspect the graph's shape. In the diagram below, you will find a few different
examples of a linear relationship and some non-linear relationships. It is not
appropriate to analyse a non-linear relationship using a Pearson product-
moment correlation.
Assumption #6:
Your data must not
show multicollinearity, which
occurs when you have two or
more independent variables
that are highly correlated with
each other.