OPTICAL |EC405|

COMMUNICATION
 TEXT BOOKS I FOLLOW
Gerd Keiser: Optical Fibre Communications
John M Senior- Optical communications
MODULE 0
Basics of Light
Basics of OFC
NUMERICAL APERTURE, CRITICAL ANGLE &
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
The measure of maximum angle at which light rays will enter
and be conducted down the fiber

Critical Angle

Total Internal Reflection?

REFRACTIVE INDEX
n = c/v
The refractive index of water is 1.333, meaning that light
travels 1.333 times faster in vacuum than in the water
MODULE 1: LIGHT, FIBRE & PROPERTIES Dr. Vishnu Rajan
MODULE 1
1. General light wave system, Advantages
2. Classification of light wave systems
3. Fibres: types and refractive index profiles
4. Mode theory of fibres: Modes in SI and GI fibres
5. Linear and non linear effects in fibres
6. Dispersion: Group Velocity Dispersion, modal, wave guide
and Polarization Mode Dispersion
7. Attenuation- absorption, bending and scattering losses.
TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT VIA OFC
WHAT IS OPTICAL COMMUNICATION
Communication using light to carry information.
It can be performed visually or by using electronic devices.
1. Wired – optic fiber communication
2. Wireless – LIFI, Photophone, IR
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
 1. LIGHT WAVE SYSTEM

Optic Fiber
Information Optical Transmission Optical Information
Source Transmitter Channel Receiver Destination

Message Encoded Weakened Restored

Input Input Signal Signal
2. CLASSIFICATION - SEMINAR
1. Point to Point Links
2. Distribution Networks
3. Local Area Networks
 FIBERS – PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

Propagation

Ray Optics Electromagnetic

Reflection Refraction Maxwell’s Eqn Interference Diffraction

1. ADVANTAGES OF LIGHT WAVE SYSTEM
1. Long Distance Transmission
1. Lower Transmission Losses
2. Reduction in number of repeaters
3. Low cost

2. Large Information Capacity

1. Low number of lines

3. Small
4. Immune to electrical interference
5. Enhanced Safety
6. Increased Signal Security
BASICS OF OPTICS – QUANTUM EFFECT
Optical radiation has particle & wave nature
Particle Nature: Light energy is always emitted or absorbed in
discrete units called quanta or photons
Photon Energy, E = hv
h= 6.625*10-34 Plank’s constant, v is frequency
Frequency is measured, considering wave property
When photon is incident in an atom, 1 electron is excited
Viceversa
3. BASICS OF OPTICS – REFRACTIVE INDEX (n)
Ratio of speed of light in vacuum to that in matter
n = c/v
c= 3*108 m/s
Typical Values:
1 for air
1.33 for water
1.45 for silica glass
2.42 for diamond
3. BASICS OF OPTICS – REFLECTION & REFRACTION
Snell’s Law
Snell's law states that the ratio of the sines of the angles of
incidence and refraction is equivalent to the ratio of phase
velocities in the two media, or
equivalent to the reciprocal of
the ratio of the indices of
refraction
3. BASICS OF OPTICS – REFLECTION & REFRACTION
3. BASICS OF OPTICS – TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
3. BASICS OF OPTICS – TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Total internal reflection is the phenomenon which occurs when a
propagated wave strikes a medium boundary at an angle
larger than a particular critical angle with respect to
the normal to the surface.
If the refractive index is lower on the other side of the
boundary and the incident angle is greater than the critical
angle, the wave cannot pass through and is entirely reflected.
The critical angle is the angle of incidence above which the
total internal reflection occurs.
SinØc = n2/n1
3. OPTIC FIBER STRUCTURE
Normally Cylindrical waveguide
Properties – Modes of waveguide
Single solid dielectric cylinder (core)
radius, a & refractive index n1
Core is surrounded by cladding, n2 < n1
Cladding reduce scattering loss & adds mechanical strength
Normally core is pure silica glass, SiO2, surrounded by glass
Most fibres are encapsulated with elastic nonabrasive plastic
3. TYPES OF OPTIC FIBER (INDEX)
Step Index
If refractive index of core is same throughout
Graded Index
If refractive index of core vary as a function of radial distance
3. TYPES OF OPTIC FIBER (MODES)
Single Mode
1 mode of propagation
Normally LASER is used
Multi Mode
Multiple modes of propagation
Large core area aids in launching optical power to the fiber or
connecting 2 fibers together. LEDs can be used
Disadvantage: Suffer from Intermodal Dispersion
3. TYPES OF OPTIC FIBER
3. STEP INDEX FIBER
Core – constant refractive index, n1
Cladding – slightly lower refractive index, s
Many Modes can be transmitted through same fiber –
Multimode
Only 1 Mode through same fiber – Single mode
4. SINGLE MODE & MULTIMODE STEP INDEX
4. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
Sl. Single Mode Multi Mode Multi Mode
No Step Index Step Index Graded Index
1 Low Intermodal Considerable Lowest Dispersion
dispersion (Broadening Dispersion
of transmitted light)
2 Highest Bandwidth Low Bandwidth Medium Bandwidth
3 Coherent sources are Use of Incoherent >
must optical sources (LED
can be used as
source)
4 Coupling must be Easy Coupling >
precise
5 Higher Tolerance Lower Tolerance >
Requirements Requirements
COHERENCE

They’re all going the

same direction, and
taking each “stroke”
in the same way and
at the same time. In
other words, all the
waves are “in phase.”
4. NUMBER OF MODES - SI

Here, Ms is the mode volume or total number of guided modes

Vc is the cut-off value of normalized frequency
Core Radius a
Relative refractive index difference Δ
Operating wavelength λ
4. GRADED INDEX FIBER
Graded index fibers do not have a constant refractive index in
the core but a decreasing core index n(r) with radial distance
from a maximum value of n1 at the axis to a constant value n2
beyond the core radius a in the cladding

Δ is the relative refractive index difference

α is the profile parameter
step index profile when α = ∞
parabolic profile when α = 2 (BEST)
triangular profile when α = 1
4. GRADED INDEX FIBER
SKEW RAYS
A skew ray is a ray that travels in a non-planar zig-zag path
and never crosses the axis of an optical fibre
SIGNAL DEGRADATION Attenuation
Dispersion
7. ATTENUATION – HW-NOTE PREPARATION
In optical fibers, attenuation is the rate at which the signal light
decreases in intensity.
Glass fiber is used for long-distance fiber optic cables
Plastic fiber has a higher attenuation and, hence, shorter range
Basic attenuation mechanisms
1. Absorption Loss – Related with material
2. Scattering Loss – Material and structural imperfections
3. Bending Loss – Fiber twisting
7. ABSORPTION

Atomic defects – Imperfections in atomic structure like missing

molecules, high density clusters of atom groups, oxygen defects
Direct melt method – Transition metal ions, Water OH ions
10 ppb – upto 10dB/km
Intrinsic absorption is associated with fibre base material, SiO2
Associated with UV & IR bands – Electron –Photon interaction
SCATTERING LOSS
Due to microscopic variations in Material Density due to
1. Compositional fluctuations – Presence of oxides like Sio2, GeO2, P2O5
This causes Rayleigh Scattering.

2. Structural inhomogeneities - Defects in fiber manufacturing

Trapped air Bubbles, unreacted materials, crystalized regions of glass
7. BENDING LOSS
Radiative losses whenever fiber undergoes a bend of finite
radius of curvature
1. Macroscopic – Large Radii compared with fiber diameter
 Occurs when fiber turns a corner
 Macro bending Losses are essentially unobservable till reaching a
critical radius. Once critical radius is reach, losses occurs exponentially

2. Microscopic – Small Radii compared with fiber diameter

 Occurs when fibers are incorporated into cables
 Repetitive small scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature of fiber axis
6. DISPERSION
Dispersion of light occurs when white light is separated into its
different constituent colours because of refraction and Snell's
law
Disadvantages:
1. Signal Distortion
2. Pulse broadening
3. Inter Symbol Interference
4. Low SNR
6. TYPES OF DISPERSION
1. Group Velocity Dispersion
2. Modal Dispersion
3. Wave guide Dispersion
4. Polarization Mode Dispersion
6.1. GROUP VELOCITY DISPERSION
At the fiber acceptance point, all modes are excited equally
with same energy
But as signal propagate, each spectral component travel
independently and undergo time delay or group delay per unit
length
6.2 MODAL DISPERSION
Due to different values of group delay for different modes
Can be eliminated in single mode operation
Can be minimized by using optimum refractive index profiles
6.3 WAVEGUIDE DISPERSION
Exists mainly in single mode fibers
We assume that the refractive index is independent of
wavelength
6.4 POLARIZATION MODE DISPERSION
Type of modal dispersion
2 different signals of different polarizations may travel at
different velocity through the fiber which may create dispersion
6.1. MATERIAL DISPERSION
Happens because refractive index varies as a function of
optical wavelength
Figure shows plot of ‘n’ variations in silica
POLARIZATION
Light is Transverse
 Linear
LINEAR POLARIZATION
Field of plane linearly polarized waves in k direction

Here, &
A0 is Maximum Amplitude of the wave,
ei is a unit vector parallel to the axis designated by I
Actual measurable electric field is given by real part of this
eqn
LINEAR POLARIZATION
LINEAR POLARIZATION
MODULE II : FIBER MATERIALS Dr. Vishnu Rajan
OPTICAL SOURCES & DETECTORS
FIBER MATERIALS
1. Must be possible to make long, thin, flexible fibers
2. Material must be transparent at a particular optical
wavelength to guide light efficiently
3. Compatible materials that have slightly different refractive
indices for core and cladding must be available
Example: Glass & Plastic
Majority of fibers are made using Silica (SiO2) or Silicate
Glass fibers have more efficiency
Plastic fibers are used for short distance transmission in abusive environments