Protection Basics - r2

Protection Fundamentals
By
Craig Wester, John Levine
1
GE Consumer & Industrial
Outline
• Introductions
• Tools
– Enervista Launchpad
– On – Line Store
– Demo Relays at ISO / Levine
• Discussion of future classes
• Protection Fundamentals
• ANSI number handout, Training CD’s
2
Introduction
• Speakers:
– Craig Wester – GE Multilin Regional Manager
– John Levine – GE Multilin Account Manager
3
Objective
• We are here to help make your job easier.
This is very informal and designed around
ISO Applications. Please ask question.
We are not here to “preach” to you.
• The knowledge base on GE Multilin
Relays varies greatly at ISO. If you have
a question, there is a good chance there
are 3 or 4 other people that have the same
question. Please ask it.
4
Tools
5
6
7
Demo Relays with Ethernet
• Working with James McRoy and Dave
Curtis
• SR 489
• SR 750
• G30
• MIF II
• Training CD’s
8
Demo Relays at L-3
9
Future Classes
• GE Multilin Training will be the 2nd Friday of
every month. We will cover:
– March – Basics, Enervista Launchpad, ANSI number
and what they represent, Uploading, downloading,
Training CD’s, etc.
– April – 489 Relay
– May – MIF II relay
– June - 750 Relay
– July - UR relay basic including Enervista Engineer
– August – UR F60 and F35 relays
– September – G30 and G60 including Transformer and
Generator in same zone
– October – Communications and security
– November - Neutral Grounding Resistors
– December – Ct’s and PT’s
10
11
Desirable Protection Attributes
• Reliability: System operate properly
– Security: Don’t trip when you shouldn’t
– Dependability: Trip when you should
• Selectivity: Trip the minimal amount to clear the fault or
abnormal operating condition
• Speed: Usually the faster the better in terms of
minimizing equipment damage and maintaining system
integrity
• Simplicity: KISS
• Economics: Don’t break the bank
12
Art
Art &
& Science
Science of
of Protection
Protection
Selection of protective relays requires
compromises:
• Maximum and Reliable protection at minimum
equipment cost
• High Sensitivity to faults and insensitivity to
maximum load currents
• High-speed fault clearance with correct
selectivity
• Selectivity in isolating small faulty area
• Ability to operate correctly under all
predictable power system conditions
13
Art
Art &
& Science
Science of
of Protection
Protection
• Cost of protective relays should be
balanced against risks involved if
protection is not sufficient and not
enough redundancy.
• Primary objectives is to have faulted
zone’s primary protection operate first,
but if there are protective relays
failures, some form of backup
protection is provided.
• Backup protection is local (if local
primary protection fails to 14
clear fault)
and remote (if remote protection
GE Consumerfails
& Industrial
Primary
Primary Equipment
Equipment &
& Components
Components
• Transformers - to step up or step down voltage level
• Breakers - to energize equipment and interrupt fault current

to isolate faulted equipment
• Insulators - to insulate equipment from ground and other

phases
• Isolators (switches) - to create a visible and permanent

isolation of primary equipment for maintenance purposes
and route power flow over certain buses.
• Bus - to allow multiple connections (feeders) to the same

source of power (transformer).
15
Primary
Primary Equipment
Equipment &
& Components
Components
• Grounding - to operate and maintain equipment safely
• Arrester - to protect primary equipment of sudden

overvoltage (lightning strike).
• Switchgear – integrated components to switch, protect,

meter and control power flow
• Reactors - to limit fault current (series) or compensate for

charge current (shunt)
• VT and CT - to measure primary current and voltage and

supply scaled down values to P&C, metering, SCADA, etc.
• Regulators - voltage, current, VAR, phase angle, etc.

16
Types of Protection
Overcurrent
• Uses current to determine magnitude of fault
– Simple
– May employ definite time or inverse time curves
– May be slow
– Selectivity at the cost of speed (coordination stacks)
– Inexpensive
– May use various polarizing voltages or ground current
for directionality
– Communication aided schemes make more selective
17
Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection (IOC) &
Definite Time Overcurrent
CTI
• Relay closest to fault operates
first
• Relays closer to source
t operate slower
• Time between operating for
same current is called CTI
(Clearing Time Interval)
CTI
50 50
+2 +2
Distribution
Substation
18
(TOC) Coordination
• Relay closest to fault operates
first
t • Relays closer to source
operate slower
• Time between operating for
same current is called CTI
CTI
Distribution
Substation
19
Time Overcurrent Protection (TOC)
• Selection of the
curves uses what is
termed as a “ time
multiplier” or “time
dial” to effectively
shift the curve up or
down on the time axis
• Operate region lies
above selected curve,
while no-operate
region lies below it
• Inverse curves can
approximate fuse
20
curve shapes GE Consumer & Industrial
Time Overcurrent Protection
(51, 51N, 51G)
Multiples of pick-
up
21
Types of Protection
Differential
– current in = current out
– Simple
– Very fast
– Very defined clearing area
– Expensive
– Practical distance limitations
• Line differential systems overcome this using
digital communications
23
1 pu
IP
CT-X CT-Y IP
Differential
IS IS
• Note CT polarity
Relay dots
IR-X IR-Y
• This is a
+1
through-current
1 + (-1) = 0 representation
Current, pu
0 • Perfect
waveforms, no
-1 saturation
DIFF CURRENT
24
Differential
2 pu 2 pu
IP
Fault
CT-X CT-Y IP
X
IS IS
• Note CT
IR-X
Relay
IR-Y polarity dots
• This is an
+2
internal fault
2 + (+2) = 4
representation
Current, pu
• Perfect
0
-2 waveforms, no
DIFF CURRENT
saturation
25
Types of Protection
Voltage
• Uses voltage to infer fault or abnormal condition
• May employ definite time or inverse time curves
• May also be used for undervoltage load shedding
– Simple
– May be slow
– Selectivity at the cost of speed (coordination stacks)
– Inexpensive
26
Types of Protection
Frequency
• Uses frequency of voltage to detect power
balance condition
• May employ definite time or inverse time curves
• Used for load shedding & machinery
under/overspeed protection
– Simple
– May be slow
– Selectivity at the cost of speed can be expensive
27
Types of Protection
Power
• Uses voltage and current to determine
power flow magnitude and direction
• Typically definite time
– Complex
– May be slow
– Accuracy important for many applications
– Can be expensive
28
Types of Protection
Distance (Impedance)
– Uses voltage and current to determine impedance of fault
– Set on impedance [R-X] plane
– Uses definite time
– Impedance related to distance from relay
– Complicated
– Fast
– Somewhat defined clearing area with reasonable accuracy
– Expensive
– Communication aided schemes make more selective
29
X ZL
Impedance
• Relay in Zone 1 operates first
• Time between Zones is called
CTI
R
T2 ZB
ZA
T1
21 21
A B
Source
30
Typical
Generation-typically at 4-
Bulk
20kV Power
Transmission-typically at 230- System
765kV
Receives power from transmission
system and transforms into
subtransmission level
Subtransmission-typically at 69-161kV
Receives power from subtransmission

system and transforms into primary
feeder voltage
Distribution network-typically 2.4-
69kV
Low voltage (service)-typically

120-600V 33
Multilin
Protection Zones
1. Generator or Generator-Transformer Units
2. Transformers
3. Buses
4. Lines (transmission and distribution)
5. Utilization equipment (motors, static loads, etc.)
6. Capacitor or reactor (when separately protected)
Bus zone Bus zone Bus zone
Unit Generator-Tx zone Line zone
Transformer zone Motor zone
Transformer zone
~
Generator XFMR Bus Line Bus XFMR Bus Motor
34
Zone
Zone Overlap
Overlap
1. Overlap is accomplished by the locations of CTs, the key
source for protective relays.
2. In some cases a fault might involve a CT or a circuit breaker
itself, which means it can not be cleared until adjacent
breakers (local or remote) are opened.
Relay Zone A Relay Zone A
Zone A Relay Zone B Zone B Zone A Relay Zone B Zone B
CTs are located at both sides of CTs are located at one side
CB-fault between CTs is cleared from of CB-fault between CTs is sensed
both remote sides by both relays, remote right side
operate only.
35
What
What Info
Info is
is Required
Required to
to Apply
Apply Protection
Protection
1. One-line diagram of the system or area involved
2. Impedances and connections of power equipment,
system frequency, voltage level and phase sequence
3. Existing schemes
4. Operating procedures and practices affecting
protection
5. Importance of protection required and maximum
allowed clearance times
6. System fault studies
7. Maximum load and system swing limits
8. CTs and VTs locations, connections and ratios
9. Future expansion expectance
40
10.Any special considerations for application.
C37.2:
Device
Numbers
• Partial listing
41
Multilin
One Line Diagram
• Non-dimensioned diagram showing how
pieces of electrical equipment are
connected
• Simplification of actual system
• Equipment is shown as boxes, circles and
other simple graphic symbols
• Symbols should follow ANSI or IEC
conventions
42
1-Line Symbols [1]
43
1-Line Symbols [2]
44
1-Line Symbols [3]
45
1-Line Symbols [4]
46
1-Line [1]
47
1-Line [2]
3-Line
49
CB Trip Circuit (Simplified)
52
Lock Out Relay
55
CB Coil Circuit Monitoring:
T with CB Closed; C with CB Opened
+
Trip/Close Coil Monitor

Contact Input
Relay
52/a
or
52/b
Breaker
T/C
Coil
52/a for trip circuit
52/b for close circuit
-
56
CB Coil Circuit Monitoring:
Both T&C Regardless of CB state
Relay Relay
Breaker Breaker
57
Current Transformers
• Current transformers are used to step primary system
currents to values usable by relays, meters, SCADA,
transducers, etc.
• CT ratios are expressed as primary to secondary;
2000:5, 1200:5, 600:5, 300:5
• A 2000:5 CT has a “CTR” of 400
58
Standard IEEE CT Relay
Accuracy
• IEEE relay class is defined in terms of the voltage a CT
can deliver at 20 times the nominal current rating
without exceeding a 10% composite ratio error.
For example, a relay class of C100 on a 1200:5 CT means that

the CT can develop 100 volts at 24,000 primary amps
(1200*20) without exceeding a 10% ratio error. Maximum
burden = 1 ohm.
100 V = 20 * 5 * (1ohm)
200 V = 20 * 5 * (2 ohms)
400 V = 20 * 5 * (4 ohms)
800 V = 20 * 5 * (8 ohms)
59
Standard IEEE CT Burdens (5 Amp)
(Per IEEE Std. C57.13-1993
Application Burden Impedance VA @ Power
Designation (Ohms) 5 amps Factor
Metering B0.1 0.1 2.5 0.9

B0.2 0.2 5 0.9
B0.5 0.5 12.5 0.9
B0.9 0.9 22.5 0.9
B1.8 1.8 45 0.9
Relaying B1 1 25 0.5
B2 2 50 0.5
B4 4 100 0.5
B8 8 200 0.5
61
Current into the Dot, Out of the Dot
Current out of the dot, in to the dot
Forward Power
IP
IS
Relay
or Meter IR
Forward Power
IP
IS
Relay
or Meter IR
62
Voltage Transformers
• Voltage (potential) transformers are used to isolate
and step down and accurately reproduce the scaled
voltage for the protective device or relay
• VT ratios are typically expressed as primary to
secondary; 14400:120, 7200:120
• A 4160:120 VT has a “VTR” of 34.66
VP
VS
Relay
63
Typical CT/VT Circuits
Courtesy of Blackburn, Protective Relay: Principles and Applications

64
CT/VT Circuit vs. Casing Ground
Case
Secondary Circuit
• Case ground made at IT location

• Secondary circuit ground made at first point of
use
65
Equipment Grounding
– Prevents shock exposure of personnel
– Provides current carrying capability for the
ground-fault current
– Grounding includes design and construction of
substation ground mat and CT and VT safety
grounding
66
System Grounding
– Limits overvoltages
– Limits difference in electric potential through local
area conducting objects
– Several methods
• Ungrounded
• Reactance Coil Grounded
• High Z Grounded
• Low Z Grounded
• Solidly Grounded
67
System Grounding
1. Ungrounded: There is no
intentional ground applied to
the system-however it’s
grounded through natural
capacitance. Found in 2.4-
15kV systems.
2. Reactance Grounded: Total

system capacitance is
cancelled by equal inductance.
This decreases the current at
the fault and limits voltage
across the arc at the fault to
decrease damage. 68
System Grounding
3. High Resistance Grounded:
Limits ground fault current to
10A-20A. Used to limit
transient overvoltages due to
arcing ground faults.
R0 <= X0C/3, X0C is capacitive
zero sequence reactance
4. Low Resistance Grounded: To
limit current to 25-400A
R0 >= 2X0
69
System Grounding
5. Solidly Grounded: There is a

connection of transformer or
generator neutral directly to
station ground.
Effectively Grounded: R0 <=
X1, X0 <= 3X1, where R is
the system fault resistance
70
Basic Current Connections:
How System is Grounded
Determines How Ground Fault is Detected
Medium/High Low/No
Resistance Resistance
76
Ground Ground
Substation Types
• Single Supply
• Multiple Supply
• Mobile Substations for emergencies
• Types are defined by number of

transformers, buses, breakers to
provide adequate service for
application
77
Industrial Substation Arrangements
(Typical)
78
Industrial Substation Arrangements
(Typical)
79
Utility
Utility Substation
Substation Arrangements
(Typical)
Single Bus, 1 Tx, Dual supply Single Bus, 2 Tx, Dual 2-sections Bus with HS Tie-Breaker,
Supply 2 Tx, Dual Supply
80
Utility
Utility Substation
(Typical)
Bus
1
Bus 2
Breaker-and-a-half –allows reduction of Ring bus –advantage that one

equipment cost by using 3 breakers for breaker per circuit. Also each
each 2 circuits. For load transfer and outgoing circuit (Tx) has 2 sources
operation is simple, but relaying is of supply. Any breaker can be taken
complex as middle breaker is responsible from service without disrupting
to both circuits others.
81
Utility
Utility Substation
Arrangements
(Typical)
Main bus
Aux. bus
Main
Reserve
Transfer
Bus 1
breaker
Tie
Bus 2
Double Bus: Upper Main and Main-Reserved and Transfer

Transfer, bottom Double Main bus Bus: Allows maintenance of any
bus and any breaker
82
Switchgear Defined
• Assemblies containing electrical switching,
protection, metering and management devices
• Used in three-phase, high-power industrial,
commercial and utility applications
• Covers a variety of actual uses, including motor
control, distribution panels and outdoor
switchyards
• The term "switchgear" is plural, even when
referring to a single switchgear assembly (never
say, "switchgears")
• May be a described in terms of use:
– "the generator switchgear"
– "the stamping line switchgear"
83
A Good Day in System
Protection……
– CTs and VTs bring electrical info to relays
– Relays sense current and voltage and declare
fault
– Relays send signals through control circuits to
circuit breakers
– Circuit breaker(s) correctly trip
What Could Go Wrong

Here????
91
A Bad Day in System
Protection……
– CTs or VTs are shorted, opened, or their wiring is
– Relays do not declare fault due to setting errors,
faulty relay, CT saturation
– Control wires cut or batteries dead so no signal is
sent from relay to circuit breaker
– Circuit breakers do not have power, burnt trip coil
or otherwise fail to trip
Protection Systems Typically

are Designed for N-1
92
Protection Performance Statistics
• Correct and desired: 92.2%

• Correct but undesired: 5.3%
• Incorrect: 2.1%
• Fail to trip: 0.4%
93
Contribution to Faults
94
Fault Types (Shunt)
95
AC & DC Current Components
of Fault Current
99
Variation of current with time
during a fault
100
Useful Conversions
102
Per Unit System
Establish two base quantities:
 Standard practice is to define

– Base power – 3 phase
– Base voltage – line to line
 Other quantities derived with basic power
equations
103
Per Unit Basics
104
Short Circuit Calculations
Per Unit System
Per Unit Value = Actual Quantity

Base Quantity
Vpu = Vactual
Vbase
Ipu = Iactual
Ibase
Zpu = Zactual
Zbase 105
Per Unit System
MVAbase x 1000
I base =
3 x kV L-L base
kV2L-L base
Z base = MVA
base
106
Per Unit System – Base Conversion
Zpu = Zactual Zbase = kV 2base

Zbase MVAbase
Zpu1 = MVAbase1 Zpu2 = MVAbase2

X Zactual X Zactual
kV 2base1 kV 2base2
 Zpu2 =Zpu1 x kV 2
base1 x MVAbase2
kV 2base2 MVAbase1
107
A Study of a Fault…….
120
Fault Interruption and Arcing
121
Multilin
Arc Flash Hazard
122
Arc Flash Mitigation:
Problem Description
– An electric arc flash can occur if a conductive object gets
too close to a high-amp current source or by equipment
failure (ex., while opening or closing disconnects, racking
out)
• The arc can heat the air to temperatures as high as 35,000 F, and
vaporize metal in equipment
• The arc flash can cause severe skin burns by direct heat exposure
and by igniting clothing
• The heating of the air and vaporization of metal creates a pressure
wave (arc blast) that can damage hearing and cause memory loss
(from concussion) and other injuries.
• Flying metal parts are also a hazard.
123
Methods to Reduce
Arc Flash Hazard
– Arc flash energy may be expressed in I2t terms,
so you can decrease the I or decrease the t to
lessen the energy
– Protective relays can help lessen the t by
optimizing sensitivity and decreasing clearing time
• Protective Relay Techniques
– Other means can lessen the I by limiting fault
current
• “Non-Protective Relay Techniques”
124
Non-Protective Relaying Methods
of Reducing Arc Flash Hazard
– System design – Electronic current limiters (these
modifications increase devices sense overcurrent and
interrupt very high currents with
power transformer replaceable conductor links
impedance (explosive charge)
• Addition of phase reactors – Arc-resistant switchgear (this
• Faster operating breakers really doesn't reduce arc flash
• Splitting of buses energy; it deflects the energy
away from personnel)
– Current limiting fuses
– Optical arc flash protection via
(provides partial protection fiber sensors
only for a limited current – Optical arc flash protection via
range) lens sensors
125
Protective Relaying Methods
of Reducing Arc Flash Hazard
– Bus differential protection (this – FlexCurve for improved
reduces the arc flash energy by coordination opportunities
reducing the clearing time – Employ 51VC/VR on feeders
– Zone interlock schemes where fed from small generation to
bus relay selectively is allowed improve sensitivity and
to trip or block depending on coordination
location of faults as identified – Employ UV light detectors with
from feeder relays current disturbance detectors
– Temporary setting changes to for selective gear tripping
reduce clearing time during
maintenance
• Sacrifices coordination
126
Arc Flash Hazards
128
Multilin
Arc Pressure Wave
129
Multilin
Copy of this presentation are at:
www.L-3.com\private\Levine
133
QUESTIONS?
134

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Protection Fundamentals

• Breakers - to energize equipment and interrupt fault current

• Insulators - to insulate equipment from ground and other

• Isolators (switches) - to create a visible and permanent

• Bus - to allow multiple connections (feeders) to the same

• Arrester - to protect primary equipment of sudden

• Switchgear – integrated components to switch, protect,

• Reactors - to limit fault current (series) or compensate for

• VT and CT - to measure primary current and voltage and

• Regulators - voltage, current, VAR, phase angle, etc.

Receives power from subtransmission

Low voltage (service)-typically

Relay Zone A Relay Zone A

Zone A Relay Zone B Zone B Zone A Relay Zone B Zone B

Trip/Close Coil Monitor

For example, a relay class of C100 on a 1200:5 CT means that

Metering B0.1 0.1 2.5 0.9

Courtesy of Blackburn, Protective Relay: Principles and Applications

• Case ground made at IT location

2. Reactance Grounded: Total

5. Solidly Grounded: There is a

• Mobile Substations for emergencies

• Types are defined by number of

Breaker-and-a-half –allows reduction of Ring bus –advantage that one

Double Bus: Upper Main and Main-Reserved and Transfer

What Could Go Wrong

Protection Systems Typically

• Correct and desired: 92.2%

 Standard practice is to define

Per Unit Value = Actual Quantity

Zpu = Zactual Zbase = kV 2base

Zpu1 = MVAbase1 Zpu2 = MVAbase2

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