Contents

Introduction, Electric Dipole , Dipole Moment, Polar

and non Polar molecules, Polarization, Dielectric
Constant, Electric Flux Density, Electric Susceptibility,
Electronic and Ionic Polarizability (Quantitative),
Orientation Polarization (Qualitative), Internal fields in
Solids, Clausius - Mossotti equation, Frequency and
temperature effect on Dielectrics (Qualitative), Piezo-
electricity, Pyro-electricity and Ferro-electricity,
Applications.n
 Introduction
Dielectrics are the substances which do not
contain free electrons or the number of free
electrons is too low to constitute the electric current.
In dielectrics, the electrons are tightly bound to
the nucleus of the atom. Example: Mica, glass,
plastic, etc
Dielectrics having negative temperature
coefficient of resistance..
Difference between dielectrics and insulators
Dielectric materials able to store
electrical energy.

Insulators opposes the electrical current

Note: All dielectrics are insulators but all
insulators need not to be dielectrics
 Uses of dielectrics in the field of electricity
1. Glass and Paper are used for large dielectric
constant and for dielectric strength .
2. In making high capacity condensers, Paper and Mica
are used.
3. Quartz, Mica, Glass etc are used for high insulation.
4. For mechanically supporting and insulating the
various electrical devices solid dielectrics are used.
Electric Dipole
A dipole is an entity in which equal positive and
negative charges are separated by a small distance.

+q d -q

Where d= distance between two charges

Dipole Moment(µ)
The product of charge and distance between two
charges is called dipole moment.
µ = qd Units: Coulomb-meter or debye
it
(1 Debye= 3.33 10
30
coulomb-metre )

+q d -q
Dielectrics are broadly classified as

1.Polar materials

2. Non- Polar materials

Polar molecule

These molecules will not have centre of

symmetry. Here the centers of positive &
negative charges will not coincide and hence
it possess a net dipole moment in it.

Ex: H20 , N20, HCI, NH3 , CO, CH3OH etc

 Polar molecule
+ _

Fig: Random orientation of dipoles

Non-Polar molecule
These molecules posses centre of symmetry.
Here the centers of positive & negative charges
coincides. Therefore, the net charge & net dipole
moment of the molecules will be zero and non-
polar molecules will not possess any dipole
moment in it.

Ex: N2 , H2 , O2 , CH3 , CO2 etc

Non-polar molecule

+
_
 Electric Polarization

The process of producing electric dipoles by an

electric field is called electric Polarization in
dielectrics.
 Polarizability
The induced dipole moment per unit electric field is
called Polarizability.
The induced dipole moment is proportional to the
intensity of the electric field.
P  E
P  E
P
 
E
Where μ Polarizability constant
 Polarization vector
The dipole moment per unit volume of the
dielectric material is called polarization vector.
n

q x  i i
n
q
P 
i 1 i 1 i
V A
 Dielectric Constant

A quantity measuring the ability of a substance to

store electrical energy in an electric field.
It is a property of an electrical insulating
material.
Dielectric Constant is the ratio of the permittivity of
the medium to the permittivity of free space.
or
The ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor with
dielectrics to the capacitance of the same capacitor
without dielectric.
or
The ratio of Potential difference between the plates of
a capacitor filled without dielectric to the P.D. between
the plates of a capacitor filled with dielectric.
  C F0 V0
r    
 0 C0 F V

It is a ratio of same units and it has no

units.

NOTE: Its value is 1 for vacuum and

Its value is ∞ for metals
Electric susceptibility  e

The Electric susceptibility can be defined as the

ratio of the Polarization vector to the total flux
density i.e.,

e   E
P
0
Electric displacement vector(OR) Electric flux
density(D) q2
Consider charge q 1 is sending q 1
r
lines of forces received by an area q1
4πr 2 , then the number of lines
forces received by the unit area is
called flux density or electric
displacement vectorD

Fig: Lines of force
from charge q1
From the definition, the displacement vector can be
expressed as

 q1 q1
D   (1)
4r 2
A
To express the electric field produced by
charge q 1 , let us consider another charge q 2 at a
distance r from q 1 , then the electric field is
expressed as


F
E   (2) Where F is force experienced by
q2 charge q 2
 By substituting the value of F, we get

 F q1q2
E  
q2 4 r q2
2

q1

4r 2

1 q1
 .
 4r 2
From equation (1), we get


D
E 
 or
 
D   E (For medium)
 
D   0 r E
Where ε r is relative permittivity for free space, ε r =1

 
D  0 E ( For free space)

The unit of electric flux density is coulomb/metre 2

   
Relation between vectorsE , D and P
 
We know that D0   0 E  (1) (For free space)
 
D   E  (2)(for medium)

Explanation

Polarization is nothing but it is additional flux

density i.e.,
 q columb
D  2
 (3)
A m
and
n
 qd columb  m
P i 1
 2
V m
columb
P 2
 ( 4)
m
When dielectric material is placed in an Electric
field, it gets Polarized and flux density through the
material is given as
D  E  (5)

This indicates that the additional flux density in the

form of Polarization, we get in addition to flux
density in free space i.e.,
 D  D0  P
D  D0  P  (6)

From equation (5) and (6) we can write

E   0 E  P  (7)
On the basis of the above discussion, we can
conclude the following

1. D is associated with free charge only

2. P is associated with Polarization charge only.
3. E is associated with all charges.
Equation (7) can also be written as
P  (   0 ) E
P  ( 0 r   0 ) E
P  ( r  1) 0 E
or
P
 ( r  1)
0E
  ( r  1)
Where  E is the electric susceptibility of the
dielectric medium.
From above equation P   0 E ( r  1) we can
conclude that

Case (1)
For free space or air  r  1 and P=0 i.e., air
cannot be polarized or Polarization is possible only
in dielectric materials.
Case (2)
When  r  1 susceptibility becomes more
and more then there is a large Polarization
which implies Polarization is directly
proportional to susceptibility.
More dielectric means material can store more
electric field.
Because of this reason dielectric materials can
be used in Electrical industries to store
electrical energy in the form of capacitors.
Different Polarization processes
When the specimen is placed inside the electric
field, it gets polarized and the polarization is of
four types . They are
1) Electronic polarization
2) Ionic polarization
3) Orientation polarization
4) Space charge polarization.
1) Electronic Polarization
when the external field is applied, the electron
clouds of atom are displaced with respect to the heavy
nuclei within the dimensions of atom
This kind of displacement will produce an electric
dipole with in the atom.
This is called electronic polarization.
i.e., dipole moment is proportional to the magnitude
of field strength and is given by
 eE
or
e   e E
where ‘αe’ is called electronic Polarizability.
Calculation of Electronic Polarizability
In a simplified classical model of an atom, nucleus
of charge ‘Ze’ is surrounded by an electron cloud of
charge ‘-Ze’ distributed in a sphere of radius ‘R’.

+Ze

No field
The charge density ‘ρ’ is given by
 
 Ze 3  Ze 
  3 
E
4
R 3 4  R 
3
x

In the presence of field

 E
In the presence of field x

When an electric field ‘E’ is applied, nucleus and

electron cloud are pulled apart due to Lorentz force of
magnitude ‘ZeE’ acting on them in opposite directions.
When they are separated, a coulomb force develops
between them which tends to oppose the
displacement.
When equilibrium is reached, Lorentz force and
coulomb forces are equal and opposite.
 Let ‘x’ be the distance between nucleus and
electron cloud under that condition.
Since nucleus is much heavier than the electron
cloud, it is assumed that only the electron cloud is
displaced when external field is applied.

Then the Lorentz force = -ZeE (1)

To determine the coulomb attraction on the nucleus,
we divide the electron cloud into two regions.
One region is inside the sphere of radius ‘x’ and the
other is the angular region lying between the two
spherical surfaces of radii ‘x’ & ‘R’.
Coulomb force
1 Ze (Charge enclosed in the sphere of raduis ' x' )

40 x 2

Charge enclosed  4 x 3 
3
4 3  3  Ze 
 x   
 4  R 
3
3
3
Zex
 3
R
 Ze  Zex  3

Therefore, Coulomb force   3 

40 x 2
 R 
2 2
Z e x
  (2)
40 R 3

But, in the equilibrium position Z 2e 2 x

 ZeE  
40 R 3
From equations (1) and (2) Zex
E
40 R 3
40 R 3 E
x
Ze
Thus the displacement of the electron cloud is
proportional to the applied field.
 Thus two electric charges +Ze and –Ze are separated
by a distance ‘x’ under the action of the applied field
thus constituting induced electric dipoles.
Induced electric dipole moment
µe=ChargeхDistance
=Zex
 40 R E 3
e  Ze 
Ze
e  40 R E 3

e   e E
Where αe=4πε0R3 is called electronic Polarizability.
 Thus ‘αe’ is depends on the volume of the atom
and is independent of temperature.
 Pe  N e  N e E  (1)
3
where N is the number of atoms / m
we know that,
P   0 ( r  1) E  ( 2)
from equation (1) and ( 2)
Pe   0 E ( r  1)  N e E
N e
or ( r  1) 
0
 0 ( r  1)
Hence e 
N
This kind of polarization is mostly exhibited in
Monatomic gases.
He Ne Ar Kr Xe
 e  ____  10 F  m
-40 2
0.18 0.35 1.46 2.18 3.54
2). Ionic Polarization
The ionic polarization occurs, when atoms form
molecules and it is mainly due to a relative
displacement of the atomic components of the
molecule in the presence of an electric field.
When a Electric Field is applied to the molecule, the
positive ions displaced by x1 to the negative side
electric field and negative ions displaced by x2 to the
positive side of field.
The resultant dipole moment µ = e ( x1 + x2)

NaCl Na+ Cl-

X1 X2

No field In the presence of field

Restoring force constant depend upon the mass of
the ion and natural frequency and is given by
F  eE  m. 02 x
or
eE
x 
m. 02
eE
and x1 
m. 02
eE
x2 
M . 02

 x1  x2 
eE
m
1
 1

 2
0
M

Where ‘M’ mass of anion and ‘m’ is mass of cation

 2
 ionic  e( x1  x2 ) 
e E
m1  M1 
 2
0

ionic e2
or  ionic    1
 1

E 0
2 m M
1.Expression for Orientation Polarization
 It is also called dipolar or molecular polarization.
The molecules such as H2 , N2,O2,Cl2 ,CH4,CCl4 etc.,
does not carry any dipole because centre of positive
charge and centre of negative charge coincides.
 On the other hand molecules like CH3Cl, H2O,HCl,
ethyl acetate ( polar molecules) carries dipoles even in
the absence of electric field.
No Field With Field
In the presence of the electric field these all
dipoles orient them selves in the direction of field
as a result the net dipole moment becomes
enormous.

However the net dipole moment is negligibly

small since all the molecular dipoles are oriented
randomly when there is no Electric Field.
Expression for orientation polarization
 N . .E 2
Po  N . ori   N . ori .E
ori
3kT
 2
 ori  ori
3kT
Thus the orientation polarization is inversely
proportional to absolute temperature.
Total Polarization
Ptotal=Pe+Pi+Po

e 1 1 
2 2
   elec   ionic   ori  4o R  2 M  m  
3 ori
w0 3kT
This is called Langevin – Debye equation for total
Polarizability in dielectrics.
2.Frequency and temperature dependence of
polarization mechanisms
 Frequency dependence
Electric polarization is very rapid, appearing at an
instant of field application.

As electrons are very light particles than ions

It occurs only at optical frequencies (1015Hz).

It is independent of temperature.

Ionic polarization is slightly slower, as ions are
heavier than electrons

This polarization occurs at frequency 1013 Hz (IR).

It is a slower process compared to electronic

polarization.

It is independent of temperature.

At optical frequencies there is no ionic polarization

Below IR frequency, ions have enough time to

respond to applied field
 Orientation polarization even slower, as polar
molecules have to reorient in applied field

Appears up to radio frequencies only

It occurs at a frequency 106 Hz to 1010Hz

It is slow process compare to ionic polarization

It greatly depends on temperature.

Space charge polarization is the slowest process, as
ions have to diffuse several inter atomic distances

Occurs only at low (10 2 Hz) frequency

 Temperature dependence
Electronic and ionic polarizations are independent of
temperature
Orientational and space charge polarizations are
dependent on temperature
Orientational decreases with temperature as it dis
aligns the temperature dipoles, decreases
Space charge polarization increases with temperature
as atoms can diffuse through interatomic distances,
increases
Internal fields in Solids(Lorentz method)

When a dielectric is exposed to electric field then

polarization takes place.
Due to this polarization, different sets of dipoles are
formed in the dielectric material.
‘The total electric field present at a point or an atom
in the dielectric is the sum of the electric fields
produced by different dipoles.
This total electric field at a point is known as internal
or local field.’
 E
+ - + -
+ - + - + -
+ -
+ - + - + - + -
A -
+ - +
+ - - + -
+
+ - + -
 Calculation of this field was done by Lorentz as
follows
The dipole at the point ‘A’ is imagined to be
surrounded by a spherical cavity of radius ‘r’ such
that the radius ‘r’ is large compared with the
intermolecular distance, so that the sphere contains
many molecules but small compared to the
dimensions of the whole dielectric
If this dielectric is placed between two capacitor
plates, the electric field experienced by an atom of the
dielectric, if assumed to be placed at the center of the
cavity is given by

Elocal = E0 + EP +ES + Em -----(1)

E0 is the field intensity at the point ‘A’ due to charge
density on the plates of the capacitor (without
dielectric).
 EP is the field at the point ‘A’ due to the polarized
charges on the plane surfaces of the dielectric.
ES is the field at the point ‘A’ due to polarized
charges on the surface of the imagined spherical cavity.
Em is the field at the point ‘A’ due to all the dipoles
inside the spherical cavity.
Now, D  ε 0E 0  P
D P
 E0 
ε0 ε0
E  E 0  E P - - - -(2) ( D/ε 0  E & P/ε 0  E P )
 At the point ‘A’, Em is the field due to all dipoles
present in the cavity. If the imagined sphere is highly
symmetric then Em becomes zero as the dipoles are
distributed uniformly in all directions i.e., Em =0

Therefore, Elocal=E+ES ------(3)

Calculation of ES by Lorentz

The magnified view of the imagined

sphere is shown in the figure. If ‘a’
is the area of a area element on the
surface of radius ‘r’ making angles
between θ and θ+dθ with field direction.

From the figure, area da=2π(PQ)(QR)

 From ΔAPQ, sinθ=PQ/r
PQ=rsinθ
From Sector AQR dθ=QR/r
QR=rdθ
Therefore, da=2πr2sinθdθ

The charge dq on the surface da is equal to the normal

component of the polarization multiplied by the surface
area. Therefore,
 dq = Pcosθ da
dq = Pcosθ 2πr2sinθdθ
= P2πr2 sinθ cosθ dθ
The field due to charge dq is denoted by dES at ‘A’,

dq cos θ
dE S 
4π 0 r 2
 P ( 2r 2 sin  cos d ) cos 

4 0 r 2
P
dE S  cos 2  sin d
2 0
Integratio n above equation

ES   dE
0
S


P
   sin d
2
cos
2 0 0

Put cos  x  -sin d  dx

when   0 then x  1;    then x  -1
1 1
P P x 3
P  1 1
 1 x dx   2 0  3    2 0  3  3 
2
ES
2 0 1
 P
 ES 
3 0
Therefore, the local field at a point or on an atom in a
dielectric (from eqn (3))
P
E local E
3ε 0
This equation is known as Lorentz relation or local filed
or internal field. Here, the local field is to be greater
than the electric field applied.
Clausius – Mosotti Equation
The relation between the dielectric constant of dielectric
and the Polarizability of atoms is known as Clausius –
Mosotti equation.
The induced dipole moment of a single atom is
proportional to the local field , i.e.,
dipole moment μ α Elocal
μ =αElocal
Where α is Polarizability
 If there are ‘N’ number of atoms per unit volume, the
electric dipole moment per unit volume which is
called polarization vector, can be written as

P=Nμ=NαElocal (Since μ =αElocal)

But local field Elocal= E+P/3ε0

  P 
 P  N  E  
 3 0 
 Nα 
P 1    NE
 3ε 0 
NE
P    (1)
 Nα 
1  
 3ε 0 
 But, electric flux density or Displacement vector ‘D’
is given as
D=P+ε0E
P=D - ε0E
P D
  ε 0  ε  ε 0 ( D  εE)
E E
P
 ε 0 ε r  ε 0  ε 0 (ε r  1) - - - -(2)
E
 N
From equations (1) & (2), we have
ε 0 (ε r  1) 
 Nα 
1  
 3ε 0 
Nα Nα
1 
3ε 0 ε 0 (ε r  1)
Nα Nα Nα  3 
1   1  
3ε 0 ε 0 (ε r  1) 3ε 0  (ε r  1) 
Nα 1 (ε r  1)
 
3ε 0  3  (ε r  2)
1  (ε  1) 
 r 
 Nα (ε r  1)
 
3ε 0 ( ε r  2)

This equation is known as Clausius - Mosotti

equation.Using this relation, one cane determine the
value of α knowing value of εr.
 N e N e
 r 1    r  1
Note: 0 0
Problems:
1). A solid elemental dielectric, with density 3X1028
atoms/m3 shows an electronic Polarizability of 10-40
farad -m2. assuming the internal electric field to be a
Lorentz field, calculate the dielectric constant of the
material.(Hint: ε0=8.85X10-12 Fm-1
Ans: εr=1.39 )
2) The dielectric constant of He gas at NTD is
1.0000684. Calculate the electronic Polarizability of He
atoms if the gas contains 2.7X1025 atoms per m3.
(Hint: N e  0 ( r  1)
 r 1   e 
0 N
ε0=8.85X10-12 Fm-1
Ans: αe=2.243X10-41Fm2 )
3) A parallel plate capacitor having a plate separation of
2 X 10-3m across which a potential of 10V is applied.
Calculate the dielectric displacement, when a material of
dielectric constant 6.0 is introduced between the plates.
(Hint: D=εE=ε0εrE, Since εr = ε/ε0
E=V/d, ε0=8.85X10-12 Fm-1
Ans: D=265.5X10-9Cm-1)
 Ferro electric materials or Ferro electricity

 Ferro electric crystals exhibit spontaneous

polarization i.e., electric polarization with out
electric field.
These have permanent dipole moment in each
atom or molecule.
Ferro electric crystals possess high dielectric
constant.
Ferro-electric materials exhibit the dielectric
hysteresis.

Examples: Barium Titanate (BaTiO3) , Sodium

nitrate (NaNO3) ,Rochelle salt etc..
 Hysteresis in Ferro electric material

P Psaturation
Retentivity

Coercivity
E
In ferroelectric materials, the polarization P does
not vary linearly with electric field E.

Hysteresis curve: The plot of P versus E in

which the material is polarized in one direction
and then in opposite direction is called the
hysteresis curve of the specimen.
When a piece of ferroelectric material initially un
polarized, is subjected to a gradually increasing
electric field, the polarization P varies with E.
Remanent polarization or retentivity or
remanence: When E reduces to zero, the material
still remained polarized and P has a certain value.

The polarization remaining in the material when

the polarization field is reduced to zero, is called the
remanent polarization.
The power of a material of retaining this
polarization is called the retentivity or remanence of
the material.

 Therefore, the retentivity or remanence of a

material is a measure of the polarization remaining
(residual polarization) in the material when the
electric field is totally removed.
Spontaneous Polarization: A material is said to
be spontaneously polarized when electric field E is
zero but polarization P is not zero. This phenomenon
is called spontaneous (by its own) polarization.
Coercivity: The coercivity of a material is a
measure of the strength of the reverse polarising field
E required to wipe out the remanent polarization of
the specimen.
 Properties of ferroelectric materials
Ferroelectric materials can be easily polarized even
by very weak electric fields.
They exhibit dielectric hysteresis. Lagging of
polarization behind the applied electric field is called
dielectric hysteresis.
Ferro electricity is a result of dielectric hysteresis.
Ferroelectric materials possess spontaneous
polarization, which is a polarization that persists
when the applied field is zero
Ferroelectric materials exhibit ferro electricity
when the temperature T< Tc. Where Tc is
ferroelectric curie temperature, when T _> Tc , they
are converted into Para electric materials.
Ferroelectric materials exhibit Piezo electricity.
Applications:
 Ferroelectric materials can be used to make
capacitors to store electric charge.
 The spontaneous polarization of ferroelectric
materials implies a hysteresis effect which can be
used as a memory function.
 Ferro electric semiconductors are used to make
Posistors. Which are used to measure and control
temperature.
 Piezo electric effect
 Piezo is a Greek word for pressure.
 Piezo electricity means electricity from pressure.
Curie brothers discovered the phenomenon of piezo
electricity in 1980.
This process is used for conversion of electrical
energy into mechanical energy and voice versa.
The Polarisation takes place in certain ferro
magnetic material by the application of mechanical
work.
This process is known as Piezo electric effect.
Inverse Piezo electric effect also takes place i.e.,
conversion of electrical energy into mechanical
energy.
Examples : Quartz crystal, Rochelle salt etc
 Axis of the crystal(Quartz)
Force
(Mechanical energy)
Bonded electrons

Free electrons
( electrical energy )
From figure, it is clear that mechanical energy is
converting into electrical energy. Hence, piezo-
electrical crystals are used to construct the
TRANSDUCERS
Applications:
 It is frequently used in transducers , motors ,
clocks and lighters.
It is used in medical ultrasound devices
Piezo electricity is used to convert mechanical
pulses into electrical pulses.
 It is used in loud speakers to convert electricity
into sound
 Pyro-electricity
Pyro-electric effect is the change in spontaneous
Polarization when the temperature of the specimen is
changed.
Examples: BaTiO3,LiNibO3,NaNO2 and ceramics etc.
Applications:
 The Pyro-electric materials such as
BaTiO3,LiNibO3 are used to make very good infra-red
detectors which can operate at room temperature.
 Materials such as NaNO2 and PZT ceramics etc are
used in the construction of Pyro-electric image tubes.
 Applications of dielectric materials
The use of dielectric materials as an insulator is one
of its most popular and important applications.
The heating property of dielectric materials is
widely used in dehydration of food , tobacco , etc.
They are also used in microwave ovens and other
home appliances.
Dielectric heating is used to laminate important
documents, in Photostat machines, and to stick the
layers of transparent plastic protection of sheets used
in the production of usable items.
Liquid dielectrics are used as a filling medium for
transformers ,circuit breakers, etc.
Dielectric materials having high value of dielectric
constant are frequently used in transistors,
microprocessors, computers and so an.
Dielectric materials having high value of dielectric
constant are used in semiconducting manufacturing
processes in which silicon dioxide is not suitable.