Basics of Air Monitoring

Dr. Akepati S. Reddy

Associate Professor, Thapar University
Adjunct Scientist & HDAS, TCIRD
Patiala (PUNJAB) – 147 004
 Temperature
• Celcius scale: range of units between freezing and boiling point
of water at one atmos. pres. is 100 (0-100)
• Fahrenheit scale: range of units between freezing and boiling
point of water at one atmos. Pres. is 180 (32-212)
 F  1.8C  32

C 
  F  32
1.8

• Absolute zero: -273.15°C or -459.67°F (temperature at which a

gas if not condense would theoretically has a volume of zero)
• At constant pressure gas volume can be determined as a function
of temperature
• Kelvin scale: begins at absolute zero and has temperature
intervals equal to Celcius units
• Rankine scale: begins at absolute zero and has temperature
intervals equal to Fahrenheit units
 Pressure
• Equal in all directions at a point within a volume of a fluid
and acts perpendicular to a surface
• Standard atmospheric pressure:
– Average atmos. pressure at sea level at 45 north latitude at 35°F
– 760 mm mercury (14.696 pound/inch2 or 1.03323 kg/cm2)
– Weather & altitude are responsible for barometric pressure
variations
• Pressure transducer:
– Transducer: a device activated by power from one system and
supplying power in some other form to a second system
– Mechanical pressure transducer: energy from a pressure
differential is converted into mechanical displacement
– Electrical pressure transducer: the mechanical displacement is
converted into an electrical signal (easy to measure, control,
amplify, transmit and record)
 Pressure
Transducer: a device activated by power from one system and
supplies power in some other form to a second system
Mechanical pressure transducer: energy from a pressure
differential is converted into mechanical displacement
Electrical pressure transducer: the mechanical displacement is
converted into an electrical signal which is easy to measure,
control, amplify, transmit and record
 Pressure
Gauge pressure: Pressure of the system relative to the ambient
barometric pressure (abbrevation ‘g’ is used to specify, psig)
Negative gauge pressure is termed as vacuum
Absolute pressure: gauge pressure added to the prevailing
atmospheric pressure provides absolute pressure
(abbrevation ‘a’ is sometimes used to specify, psia)
Pressure head: height of a column of fluid required to produce a
given pressure at its base
P is pressure (force/area)
Ρ is density of the fluid (mass/volume)
p  gh g is acceleration due gravity (length/time2)
h is pressure head (length)
Dalton’s law of partial pressure: total pressure of a gas-mixture is
the sum of the pressures exerted by individual components of
the gas mixture
 Ideal gas laws
Idela gas molecules do not attract one another and occupy no
part of the whole volume
Real gases that deviate very slightly from the ideal gas behavior
under ordinary temperature and pressure conditions can be
considered as ideal gases
Boyle’s law: at constant temperature volume of a given mass of
ideal gas varies inversely with the absolute pressure
1 V is volume
V
P P is absolute pressure
Charles’ law: at constant pressure volume of a given mass of
ideal gas varies proportional to the absolute temperature
VT T is absolute temperature
Law for ideal gases
R is universal gas constant
PV  nRT n is number of moles of the gas
 Law for ideal gases
Molar volume
• In the law for ideal gases, for n=1, volume will be molar
volume

RT
V P
• For P=760 mm mercury and T=273°C the molar volume is
22.414 L (molar volume at STP)
• Here R value is 62.4 (L)(mm Hg)(g-mole)-1(K)-1
• At NTP (at 760 mm Hg pressure and absolute temperature
298K) the molar volume is 24.46 L
 m
 Gas density from the law for ideal gases
V
m m is mass of the gas
PV  nRT  RT
M M is molecular weight of the gas
PM
 ρ is density of the gas
RT


M
  
Gas density from molecular weight
V and molar volume
273 P ρ is density of the gas at STP
M
 T 760 V is molar volume at 273K
22.414

Volume correction to NTP conditions

P1V1 P2V2
 P2 is pressure at NTP: 760 mm Hg
T1 T2
T2 is temperature in Kelvin at NTP: 298
P1V1 T2 P1V1
V2   0.39 P1 should be in ..mm Hg
T1 P2 T1
T1 should be in Kelvin
 Reynold’s Number
• Defined as
inertial force LV V is fluid velocity
N Re  
viscous force  ρ is fluid density

• Viscosity is temperature dependent and for air it increases with

increasing temperature
n n
 T   T  μ is viscosity
      T is temperature in kelvin
 0  T0   273.15  n is constant –its value is 0.758 for air
• L is a linear dimension for ducts and tubes it is 4 times the hydraulic radius
(cross sectional area/wetted perimeter)
– For circular pipes: L= Diameter of the pipe
– For rectangular duct: L= 2ab/(a+b)
– For a particle settling in fluid it is diameter of the particle
– For annular space L=2 (out diameter – inner diameter)
 Measurement Units
• When reporting results
– type of sampling instrument should be described
– temperature and pressure of measurement should be reported when
volume (of air) is expressed
• SPM: mg/m3 or μg/m3 (NTP)
• Gaseous materials: ppm or ppb or in mg/Nm3 or μg/m3 (NTP)
• Particle fallout: mg/cm2/month or year
• Particle count: number/m3
• ppm (or ppt or ppb) is dimensionless (volume or mass ratio) –
mostly volume ratio
– ppm can be converted into mg or μg per m3 by
mg ppm
3
 MW MW is molecular weight of the pollutant
Nm 24.46 24.46 is molar volume of gas at NTP
 Meteorological variables
• Plume rise and initial dilution of plume (wind speed)
• Transport and dispersion of air pollutants (atmospheric
stability and mixing height)
• Atmospheric stability (temperature, radiation intensity and
wind speed)
• Mixing height (radiosonde data)
• Meteorological variables important from transport and
dispersion of air pollutants point of view: Wind speed, Wind
direction, Temperature and temperature difference and Solar
radiation
• Other meteorological variables: Rainfall, Relative humidity
and Visibility
• Radiosonde (instrument carried aloft by a ballon to measure
atmospheric parameters at different altitudes and transmit
data to a ground station)
 Wind Speed
Rotating cup anemometer or propeller anemometer are used
• Rotating cup anemometer has three hemispherical or cone-shaped
cups are mounted symmetrically about a vertical axis of rotation
• Propeller anemometer may be either vane-oriented or fixed mount
– Vane oriented propeller anemometer – propeller is provided on a
horizontal pivoted shaft that is turned into the wind by a vane
– Fixed mount propeller anemometer
• Two orthogonal fixed mount propellers are used for obtaining both wind speed and
horizontal direction
• Third propeller rotating about a vertical axis is used for obtaining the vertical
component of wind
• A transducer is used to convert the cup or propeller rotations into
electrical signal
– Electronics to capture and condition the signal from the transducer, and to
record and display the signal
 Vane oriented propeller anemometer
Rotating cup anemometer

Orthogonal fixed mount

Propeller anemometer
 Wind direction
• Direction from which wind is blowing - measured in degrees
clockwise from north
• Wind vane is used
– Bivane or bidirectional wind vane is used for obtaining both
horizontal and vertical components of wind direction
• Bivane has either an annular fin or flat fins perpendicular to each
other
• The vane is counter balanced and mounted on a gimbal for
free rotation both horizontally and vertically
• Brush contacts are used to divide the wind direction into 8 or
16 or 36 compass point sectors
• Direction can also be computed from the wind speed data
obtained from orthogonal fixed mount propeller
anemometers
 Location of wind measuring instruments

• Siting is important for obtaining representative wind data

• Located away from obstructions
• Due consideration is given to the security and accessibility
• Sited at a standard height of 10 m and removed from
obstructions by >10 times the height of the obstructions
• Mounted on open lattice towers either on the top or on a
side of the tower on a boom at distance >2 times the
tower diameter/diagonal towards the prevailing wind
direction
 Temperature
• Measured at 2 m above the ground level
– For temperature difference measurements at 2m and 10m height are
needed
• Resistance temperature detectors (platinum or copper metal or
thermisters made from mixture of metal oxides are commonly
used
• Temperature sensors are located
– on an open, level and well ventilated area of >9 m diameter
– away from obstructions at distance >4 times the height of obstructions
– >30m away from larger paved areas
– away from low lying areas holding standing water
• Surface under the temperature sensor should be covered by
natural earth or by short grass
• The location should be well ventilated and protected from
thermal radiation
 Radiation
• Pyranometer is used to measure solar radiation (both direct
and diffused radiation)
– Net radiometers are used to measure difference between upward and
downward components of radiation
• A small flat disc divided into sectors – alternate sectors are
painted dark and white
• The disc is covered by an optical glass dome transparent to
280-2800 nm wavelengths
– Silicon glass dome is used for measuring radiation at different spectral
intervals
• Located in open areas with unrestricted view of sky in all the
directions during all the seasons
• Located away from light coloured walls and artificial sources
of radiation
• Located on tall platform or on roof top
• Net radiometers are mounted 1 m aboveground - Ground
cover should be representative of the surrounding area
 Tipping bucket rain gauge

Rain gauge
 National Ambient Air Quality Standards, 2009
S.No Pollutant Time Concentration in ambient air
weighted
average Industrial, Ecologically sensitive Method of measurement
residential, rural area (notified by
and other areas central government

1. SO2 Annual 50 20 Improved west and gaeke

(μg/m3) 24 hr. 80 80 Ultraviolet fluorescence
2. NO2 Annual 40 30 Improved Jacob &
(μg/m3)* 24 hr. 80 80 Hochheiser (Na-Arsenite)
Chemiluminescence
3. PM10 Annual 60 60 Gravimetric
(μg/m3) 24 hr. 100 100 TOEM
Beta attenuation
4. PM2.5 Annual 40 40 Gravimetric
(μg/m3) 24 hr. 60 60 TOEM
Beta attenuation
5. Ozone 8 hr. 100 100 UV photometric
(μg/m3) 1 hr. 180 180 Chemiluminescence
Chemical method
6. Lead (Pb) Annual 0.5 0.5 AAS/ICP after sampling on
(μg/m3) 24 hr. 1.0 1.0 EPM 2000 filter paper
ED-XRF using Teflon
7. CO 8 hr. 2 2 Non-dispersive infrared
(mg/m3)* 1 hr. 4 4 spectroscopy
 National Ambient Air Quality Standards, 2009
S.No Pollutant Time Concentration in ambient air
weighted
average Industrial, Ecologically Method of measurement
residential, rural sensitive area
and other areas (notified by central
government)
8. NH3 (μg/m3) Annual 100 100 Cemiluminescence
24 hr 400 400 Indophenol blue method

9. Benzene Annual 5 5 GC based continuous

(μg/m3) analyzer
Adsorption and
desorption followed by GC
10. BenzoPyrene Annual 1 1 Solvent extraction
(BaP) (ng/m3) followed by HPLC/GC
analysis
11. Arsenic (As) Annual 6 6 AAS/ICP after sampling on
(ng/m3) EPM2000 filter paper(GFA)

12. Nickel (ng/m3) Annual 20 20 AAS/ICP after sampling on

EPM2000 filter paper(GFA)

Annual values are mean of >104 measurements a year at a site and twice a week
24, 8 and 1 hr values shall be complied with 98% of the time during the year but should not
fail on two consecutive days (adequate reason for regular/continuous monitoring
 Ambient Air Sampling
The sampling could be for
• Particulate matter (TSPM, PM10 and PM2.5)
– High Volume Sampler (HVS) for TSPM
– Respirable Dust Sampler (RDS) for PM10 and NRSPM
– PM2.5 sampler
• Gravimetric methods are used for the analysis
The sample collected on the filter (Glass fiber filter) is suitable for
analysis of organic pollutants (Benzopyrene) and inorganic
contaminants (heavy metals like Lead, Arsenic, Nickel)
• Usually GC or AAS can be used for the analysis
 Ambient Air Sampling
Gaseous pollutants (SO2, NO2, NH3, O3, CO, Cl2, Acid mist)
• Gasesous attachment of HVS and RDS for the absorption of
the gaseous pollutants
– Absorbing solutions used are
• Potassium tetrachloromercurate, K2(HgCl4), solution for SO2
• Sodium hydroxide solution for NO2
• Sulfuric acid solution for NH3
• 1% KI in 0.1M Na2HPO4 and 0.1M KH2PO4 for ozone
• Acidified methyl orange solution for chlorine
– Absorbed pollutants are analyzed by
• UV or visible spectrophotometry (Ozone by UV, SO2 and NO2 by
visible)
• Ion analyzer (NH3)
 Ambient Air Sampling
– Gaseous attachment of HVS or RDS for the adsorption of
gaseous pollutants like benzene
• Activated charcoal or silicajel is used for benzene
• Adsorbed pollutant is desorbed and analysed on GC (or HPLC!) -
benzene
• Handy Sampler or Low Volume Sampler for the adsorption or
absorption of gaseous pollutants
• Gastec gas sampling pump (for grab sample analysis) – used
for carbon monoxide
• Orsat’s apparatus (for grab sample analysis) for the absorption
of the gaseous constituents of the sample
– Potassium hydroxide solution for CO2, (also H2S, SO2, HCN, etc.)
– Alkaline pyrogallol solution (pyrogallic acid) for O2, CO2, etc.
– Ammonical cuprous chloride solution for CO2, O2 and CO
 Gaseous attachment

RDS with gaseous attachment

Thermoelectrically cooled gaseous attachment

 Handy sampler

Independent gaseous pollutant sampler

Organic vapour sampler

Orsat Apparatus
 Ambient Air Sampling
Averaging times:
• 24 hrs for SO2, NO2, Ammonia, SPM (PM10 and PM2.5),
Benzene, Benzopyrene, Lead, arsenic and Nickel
• 8 hrs for ozone, carbon monoxide
• 1 hr for ozone, CO, ozone and NO2
Ambient air sampling train
• Includes a collection device, air mover, flow measuring device
and contaminant detector
• Air movers and flow measuring devices are placed after
sample collection devices to avoid contamination
 Ambient air sampling train
• Materials used in a sampling train must be inert to the
pollutant of interest
– Glass, teflon and stainless steel are inert and non-reactive
– Glass can not be used for hydrofluoric acid monitoring
• Sampling train components can be damaged by the sampled
air or by the products of the measurement system
– Rubber diaphragm pump can be affected by the ozone involved in NO2
measurement – charcoal filter is used to remove the ozone
– Rotameter and small orifice meters need protection (filter and
moisture trap are used to protect)
 Sampling train components
Sample collection devices
– Air containing pollutant enters the sampling train and passes through
sample collection device
– Physically or chemically removes pollutant from air stream
– Interferences can influence the collection of the pollutant of interest
As is air sample collection for later analysis (grab or integrated samples in
stainless steel (SS), glass or pliable plastic containers or simple
hypodermic syringe)
Contaminant detection
– Removed pollutant is either analyzed simultaneously or held for later
analysis
– Usually by instrumental analysis
 Sampling train components
Measuring devices
• Rotameters
• Orifice meters
Air movers
• Create flow of air allowing contaminant of it either directly
analyzed or captured by a collection device
• Mainly two types
– Pumps (including multistage pumps)
• Can be centrifugal pumps or positive displacement (piston or
diaphragm) pumps
– Displacers (liquid displacers, air displacers, etc.)
 Orifice Meter
This type of meter consists of a thin flat plate with a circular hole drilled
in its center. It is very simple, inexpensive and easy to install, but it can
cause significant pressure drops.

1 2
V1 Front view of
orifice plate

P1 P2

2 ( P1  P 2 )
V2  C  Where Cu is the discharge
 [1 - (A 2 / A 1 ) 2 ]
coefficient

34
Rotameter
for the absorption of the gaseous pollutants
 Grab Sampling
• Collection of a small representative portion from the gross sample with
no alteration at a particular time and place (within a short interval)
• Preferred in certain situations
– Constituents having too slow absorption rates to efficient collection
– Field conditions (lack of electricity, lab facilities, etc.)
– Contaminant concentrations considerably varying with time
• Requires minimum of equipment – requires little or no special
training/experience
• Sample obtained is generally not large
• Can be collected by
– Using evacuated containers
– Liquid displacers
– Air displacers
– Inflation of a plastic bag
– Using an adsorbent cartridge
– Using a hypodermal syringe
 Grab Sampling
• Evaculated containers (Evacuated strong glass tube with
sealed neck or vacuum flask with a stopcock or vacuum cap)
– The neck is scratched and broken for simultaneous sample
collection - then sealed with wax and sent to the laboratory for
analysis
– The stopcock or vacuum cap is turned open for sample collection
and then closed air tight and sent to lab for analysis
– Reevacuation and sealing are difficult and the containers are
prone to breakage
• Liquid/air displacers
– These are cylindrical tubes with stopcocks at each end
– In air displacers the stopcocks are opened for thoroughly purging
and then collecting the sample and closing the stopcocks
– Samples at higher pressure can be easily collected –ambient air
sampling may require pumps
Two sampling train components into one
entity
Sample collection device and air mover
Gravity flow out of liquid creates
vacuum and draws in air sample
Used only grab sampling and sample
volume is very limited
Air displacers can be used for drawing
sample from relatively higher pressure
vessels