Sensors & Actuators for Automatic

Systems (S&AAS)
Lecture-1
Introduction

Dr. Imtiaz Hussain

Associate Professor
email: imtiaz.hussain@faculty.muet.edu.pk
URL :http://imtiazhussainkalwar.weebly.com/

1
 Lecture Outline
• Recommended Books

• Introduction

• Sensor & Transducer

• Classification of Sensors

• Thermal Sensors

2
 Recommended Readings
• The Mechatronic Handbook, Editor in Chief
Robert H. Bishop, The University of Texas at
Austin.

• Process Control Instrumentation

Technology, Curtis D. Johnson.

3
 Introduction
• Sensors and actuators are two critical components
of every closed loop control system.

• Examples:
4
 Introduction
• A sensing unit can be as simple as a single sensor or
can consist of additional components such as filters,
amplifiers, modulators, and other signal conditioners.

• The controller accepts the information from the

sensing unit, makes decisions based on the control
algorithm, and outputs commands to the actuating
unit.

• The actuating unit consists of an actuator and

optionally a power supply and a coupling mechanism.
5
 Sensors
• Sensor is a device that when exposed to a physical
phenomenon (temperature, displacement, force, etc.)
produces a proportional output signal (electrical,
mechanical, magnetic, etc.).

• The term transducer is often used synonymously with

sensors.

• However, ideally, a sensor is a device that responds to a

change in the physical phenomenon.

• On the other hand, a transducer is a device that converts

one form of energy into another form of energy.

6
 What is the difference between a
transducer and a sensor?
• A Sensor can sense in any form(usually electronic) i.e
due to some mechanical change, it can react in
electrical form. Thus there is a conversion, similar to
that of a transducer.

• A classic example would be a thermocouple. Or a

pressure sensor which might detect pressure and
convert it into electric current (3-15psi to 4-20ma)

• Therefore, a thermocouple can be called a sensor

and or transducer.
7
 What is the difference between a
transducer and a sensor?
• A Transducer is more than a sensor. It consists of a
sensor/actuator along with signal conditioning
circuits.

8
 What is the difference between a
transducer and a sensor?
• So one way to define is that the output from a sensor
may or may not be meaningful i.e most of the times it
needs to be conditioned and converted into various
other forms.

• The transducer
output is always
meaningful.

9
 What is the difference between a
transducer and a sensor?
• The output of a motor is meaningful. The output of a
loudspeaker is meaningful. They are transducers.

• A sensor is nothing but just a primary element which senses

any physical phenomenon or it gives an indication in any
change of the physical phenomenon.

• We can say that Every transducer is also (or has) a sensor but
every sensor need not be a transducer. Sometimes it is.

10
 What is the difference between a
transducer and a sensor?
• Sometimes in a sensor, there is no conversion at all.
– Ex. Thermometer, where the temperature is sensed and is directly
measured.

• In a transducer there is always a conversion i.e transduction.

– Ex. RTD, Thermocouple etc where the temperature is sensed and the
measurement is made in terms of voltage.

• Thus you can say that a SENSOR may or may not have a
conversion and it only senses. A TRANSDUCER always involves
a conversion and also has signal conditioning involved.

11
 Classification of Sensors
• The sensors are classified into the following
three major classes.

1. Thermal Sensors
2. Mechanical Sensors
3. Optical Sensors

12
 Thermal Sensors
• Temperature is probably most widely controlled physical
quantity among all.

• In our natural surroundings, some of the most remarkable

techniques of temperature regulation are found in the bodily
function of living creatures.

• On the artificial side, humans have been vitally concerned

with temperature control since the first fire were struck for
warmth.

• Industrial temperature regulation has always been paramount

importance and becomes even more so with the advance of
technology.

13
 What is Temperature?
• Temperature is the measure of Thermal Energy.

• If we are to measure thermal energy, we must have some sort

of units by which to classify the measurement.

• The original units used were “hot” and “cold”.

• The proper unit for energy measurement is the joule in SI

system.

• Special sets of units are employed to define the average

energy per molecule of a material.
14
 Calibration
• To define the temperature scales a set of calibration points is
used.
1. Oxygen: liquid/gas equilibrium
2. Water: solid/liquid equilibrium
3. Water: liquid gas equilibrium
4. Gold: solid/liquid equilibrium

• For each, the average thermal energy per molecule is well

defined.
• The SI definition of the Kelvin unit of temperature is in terms
of the triple point of water.
• This is the state at which an equilibrium exists between the
liquid, solid and gaseous state of water in a closed vessel.
15
 Calibration
• To define the temperature scales a set of calibration points is
used.
Calibration Point Temperature
K oR oF oC

Zero thermal Energy 0 0 -459.6 -273.15

Oxygen: liquid/gas equilibrium 90.18 162.3 -297.3 -182.97
Water: solid/liquid equilibrium 273.15 491.6 32 0
Water: liquid gas equilibrium 373.15 671.6 212 100
Gold: solid/liquid equilibrium 1336.15 2405 1945.5 1063

• K (Kelvin) and oR (Rankine) are absolute temperature scales.

373.15 𝐾 = 671.6 °𝑅

671.6 9 9
1𝐾 = °𝑅 = °𝑅 ⇒ 𝑇 (𝐾) = 𝑇(°𝑅)
373.15 5 5 16
 Calibration
• The relative temperature scales differ from the absolute
scales only in a shift of the zero axis.
Calibration Point Temperature
K oR oF oC

Zero thermal Energy 0 0 -459.6 -273.15

Oxygen: liquid/gas equilibrium 90.18 162.3 -297.3 -182.97
Water: solid/liquid equilibrium 273.15 491.6 32 0
Water: liquid gas equilibrium 373.15 671.6 212 100
Gold: solid/liquid equilibrium 1336.15 2405 1945.5 1063

𝑇 °𝐶 = 𝑇 𝐾 − 273.15

𝑇 °𝐹 = 𝑇 °𝑅 − 459.6
9
𝑇 °𝐹 = 𝑇 °𝐶 + 32
5 17
 Resistive devices
• One of the primary methods for electrical measurement
of temperature involves changes in the electrical
resistance of certain material.

• The principal measurement technique is to place the

temperature sensing device in contact with the
environment whose temperature is to be measured. .

• Two basic devices used are

1. RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)
2. Thermistor

18
 Resistive Devices
• RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)
– Based on Metal Resistance variation with Environment

• Thermistor
– Based on Semiconductor resistance variation with
environment.

19
 Metal Resistance vs Temperature
• A metal is an assemblage of atoms in the solid state in which
the individual atoms are in an equilibrium with superimposed
vibration induced by thermal energy.

• As electron moves through the material, they collide with

stationary atoms.

• When the thermal energy is present in the material and the

atoms vibrate the conduction electron tend to collide even
more with the vibrating atoms.

• This impedes the free movement of electrons, i.e. material

exhibits a resistance to electrical current flow.
20
 Metal Resistance vs Temperature
• Thus Metal resistance is a function of temperature.

21
 Resistance vs Temperature Approximation
• An examination of the Resistance vs Temperature curve shows that
the curves are very nearly linear.
• In fact, when only short temperature spans are considered, linearity
is even more evident.

• This fact is employed to

develop approximate analytical
equations for resistance vs.
temperature of a particular
metal.

22
 Linear Approximation
• A linear approximation means
that we may develop an
equation for a straight line
that approximates the
resistance versus temperature
curve over some specified
span.

• The equation of straight line is

R T = R 𝑇𝑜 1 + 𝛼𝑜 ∆𝑇 𝑇1 < 𝑇 < 𝑇2
23
 Linear Approximation
R T = R 𝑇𝑜 1 + 𝛼𝑜 ∆𝑇 𝑇1 < 𝑇 < 𝑇2
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇
𝑅 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑜
∆𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜
𝛼𝑜 = 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑇𝑜

1 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
𝛼𝑜 =
𝑅 𝑇𝑜 𝑇2 − 𝑇1

24
 Example-1
• A Sample of metal resistance versus temperature has the
following measured values:

• Find the linear approximation of resistance vs temperature

between 60oF and 90oF.

25
 Example-1
• Find the linear approximation of resistance vs temperature
between 60oF and 90oF.

𝑅2 = 112.2Ω

𝑅 𝑇𝑜 = 110.2Ω

𝑅1 𝑇𝑜
𝑇1 𝑇2

1 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 1 112.2 − 106
𝛼𝑜 = = = 0.001875/℉
𝑅 𝑇𝑜 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 110.2 90 − 60 26
 Example-1
• Thus the linear approximation
𝛼𝑜 = 0.001875/℉
is
𝑅2 = 112.2Ω
R T = R 𝑇𝑜 1 + 𝛼𝑜 ∆𝑇 𝑇1 < 𝑇 < 𝑇2

𝑅 𝑇𝑜 = 110.2Ω
R T = 110.2 1 + 0.001875(𝑇 − 75)

𝑅1 𝑇𝑜
𝑇1 𝑇2

27
 Example-2
• A Sample of metal resistance versus temperature has the
following measured values:

• Find the linear approximation of resistance vs temperature

between 65oF and 85oF.

28
 Quadratic Approximation
• A quadratic approximation of R-T curve is more accurate
approximation.
• It includes both a linear term, as before, and a term that
varies as the square of the temperature.

𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑅 𝑇𝑜 1 + 𝛼1 ∆𝑇 + 𝛼2 (∆𝑇)2

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇
𝑅 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑜
∆𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜
𝛼1 = 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑇𝑜
𝛼2 = 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑇𝑜

29
 Example-3
• A Sample of metal resistance versus temperature has the
following measured values:

• Find the Quadratic approximation of resistance vs

temperature between 60oF and 90oF.

30
 Example-3
• Again, since 75oF is the midpoint we will
use this for To.
𝑅 𝑇𝑜 = 110.2 Ω

• To find 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 two equations can be set

up using the end points of the data, namely
R(60oF) and R(90oF).

𝑅 60 = 110.2 1 + 𝛼1 (60 − 75) + 𝛼2 (60 − 75)2 Eq.1

𝑅 90 = 110.2 1 + 𝛼1 (90 − 75) + 𝛼2 (90 − 75)2 Eq.2

31
 Example-3
𝑅 60 = 110.2 1 + 𝛼1 (60 − 75) + 𝛼2 (60 − 75)2 Eq.1

𝑅 90 = 110.2 1 + 𝛼1 (90 − 75) + 𝛼2 (90 − 75)2 Eq.2

• Adding Eq.1 and Eq.2 yields

𝛼2 = −44.36 × 10−6 /℉
• Substituting this value in any of the above equation yields

𝛼1 = 0.001875/℉

• Thus the quadratic approximation is

𝑅 𝑇 = 110.2 1 + 0.001875(𝑇 − 75) − 44.36 × 10−6 (𝑇 − 75)2

32
 Example-4
• By what percentage do the predictions of the linear and
quadratic approximations vary from the actual values at
60oF and 85oF.
Solution

• Linear and quadratic approximations of the given data

are given as:
𝑅𝐿 T = 110.2 1 + 0.001875(𝑇 − 75)

𝑅𝑄 𝑇 = 110.2 1 + 0.001875(𝑇 − 75) − 44.36 × 10−6 (𝑇 − 75)2

• At 60oF
𝑅𝐿 60 = 110.2 1 + 0.001875(60 − 75) = 107.1 Ω
𝑅𝑄 60 = 110.2 1 + 0.001875(60 − 75) − 44.36 × 10−6 (60 − 75)2
𝑅𝑄 60 = 106 Ω 33
 Example-4
• At 85oF
𝑅𝐿 85 = 110.2 1 + 0.001875(85 − 75) = 112.3 Ω
𝑅𝑄 85 = 110.2 1 + 0.001875(85 − 75) − 44.36 × 10−6 (85 − 75)2
𝑅𝑄 85 = 111.8 Ω

Temperature Resistance Linear % Error Quadratic % Error

(oF) (Actual) Approximation Approximation
60 106.0 107.1 -1 106 0
65 107.6 108.13 -0.49 107.64 -0.0417
70 109.1 109.16 -0.06 109.04 0.0507
75 110.2 110.2 0 110.2 0
80 111.1 111.23 -0.11 111.11 -0.0098
85 111.7 112.3 -0.54 111.8 -0.0693
90 112.2 113.29 -0.9 112.2 0
34
Example-4

35
 RTD
• RTD is a temperature sensor whose resistance increases
with rise in temperature.

• Metals used in these devices vary from platinum, which

is very repeatable, quite sensitive, and very expensive, to
nickel, which is not quite as repeatable, more sensitive,
and less expensive.

36
 Sensitivity
• An estimate of RTD sensitivity can be noted from typical
values of 𝛼𝑜 .

• For platinum this number is typically on the order of

0.004/oC and for Nickel a typical value is 0.005/oC.

• Thus, for platinum, for example, a change of 0.4Ω would

be expected for a 100Ω RTD if the temperature is
changed by 1oC.

37
 Response Time
• In general, RTD has a response time of 0.5 to 5sec or
more.

• The slowness of response is due to the slowness of

thermal conductivity in bringing the device into thermal
equilibrium with its environment.

• Generally time constants are specified either for “Free

Air” or and “Oil Bath” condition.

38
 Construction
• RTD is simply a length of wire whose resistances is to be
mentioned as function of temperature.

• The construction is typically such that the wire is wound

on a coil to achieve small size and improve thermal
conductivity to decrease response time.

• In many cases wire is protected from environment by a

sheath or protective tube that inevitably increase
response time but may be necessary in hostile
environment.

39
 Signal Conditioning
• In view of the very small fractional changes of resistance with
temperature (0.4%), the RTD is generally used in bridge
circuit.

40
 Dissipation Constant
• Because the RTD is resistance, there is an 𝑖 2 𝑅 power
dissipated by the device itself that causes a slight heating
effect.

• Typically a dissipation constant is provided in RTD

specifications.

• Which relates the power required to raise the RTD

temperature by one degree of temperature.

• Thus a 25mW/oC dissipation constant shows that if 𝑖 2 𝑅 power

loss in RTD is 25mW, then the RTD will be heated by 1oC.
41
 Dissipation Constant
• The self heating temperature rise can be found from the
power dissipated by RTD and the dissipation constant from
𝑃
∆𝑇 =
𝑃𝐷
• Where,
– ∆𝑇 = Temperature rise because of self heating
– 𝑃 = Power disseated by RTD
– 𝑃𝐷 = Dissipation constant of RTD

42
 Example-5
• An TRD has 𝛼𝑜 = 0.005/℃, 𝑅 = 500Ω and a dissipation
constant of 𝑃𝐷 = 30𝑚𝑊/℃ at 20℃. RTD is used in bridge
circuit as shown below with 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 500Ω and 𝑅3 a variable
resistor used to null the bridge. If the supply is 10𝑉 and the RTD
is placed in a bath at 0℃ find the value of 𝑅3 to null the voltage.

43
 Example-5
• First find out the value of RTD resistance at 0℃.
R T = R 𝑇𝑜 1 + 𝛼𝑜 ∆𝑇

R 0℃ = 500 1 + 0.005(0 − 20)

R 0℃ = 450Ω

• Let us now find out the power dissipated in RTD.

P = 𝐼2 𝑅
• Current can be calculated as
𝑉 10
𝐼= = = 0.011𝐴
𝑅𝑇 500 + 450
• Power dissipation in RTD is
P = (0.011)2 × 450 = 0.054𝑊
44
 Example-5
• Temperature rise now can be calculated as
𝑃
∆𝑇 =
𝑃𝐷
0.054
∆𝑇 = = 1.8℃
0.03
• Thus the RTD is not at bath temperature but at temperature of
1.8℃.
R 1.8℃ = 500 1 + 0.005(1.8 − 20)
R 1.8℃ = 454.5Ω

• Thus the bridge will null at 𝑅3 = 454.5Ω

45
 Range of RTD
• The effective range of RTD depends principally on the
type of wire used as the active element.

• Thus a typical platinum RTD may have range of −100℃

to 650℃.

• Whereas, RTD constructed from nickel might typically

have a specified range of −180℃ to 300℃.

46
 Effects of lead-wire Resistance
• Because the RTD is a resistive device, any resistance
elsewhere in the circuit will cause errors in the
readings for the sensor.

• The most common source of additional resistance is in

the lead-wires attached to the sensor, especially with
assemblies that have long extension leads.

• Fortunately, the use of a 3-wire or 4-wire system will

reduce errors to negligible levels in most applications.

47
 2-Wire Construction
• 2-wire construction is the least accurate of the 3 types
since there is no way of eliminating the lead wire
resistance from the sensor measurement.

• 2-wire RTD’s are mostly used with short lead wires or

where close accuracy is not required.

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝐿1 + 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑅𝑏

48
 3-Wire Construction
• 3-wire construction is most commonly used in industrial
applications where the third wire provides a method for removing
the average lead wire resistance from the sensor measurement.

• The 3 wire circuit works by measuring the resistance between 𝑅𝐿1

& 𝑅𝐿2 and subtracting the resistance between 𝑅𝐿2 & 𝑅𝐿3 which
leaves just the resistance of the RTD.

• This method assumes that wires 1, 2 & 3 are all the same
resistance

49
 3-Wire Construction
• Resistance between 𝑅𝐿1 & 𝑅𝐿2 can be calculated as

𝑅12 = 𝑅𝐿1 + 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑅𝑏

• Resistance between 𝑅𝐿2 & 𝑅𝐿3 can be calculated as

𝑅23 = 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑅𝐿3

• Subtracting the resistance 𝑅23 from 𝑅12 which leaves just the
resistance of the RTD
𝑅12 − 𝑅23 = (𝑅𝐿1 +𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑅𝑏 ) − (𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑅𝐿3 )

𝑅12 − 𝑅23 = 𝑅𝑏
50
 4-Wire Construction
• 4-wire construction is used primarily in the laboratory where
close accuracy is required.
• In a 4 wire RTD the actual resistance of the lead wires can be
determined and removed from the sensor measurement.

• The 4-wire circuit is a true 4-wire bridge, which works by using

wires 1 & 4 to power the circuit and wires 2 & 3 to read.
• This true bridge method will compensate for any differences in
lead wire resistances.
51
 4-Wire Construction
• The true 4-wire measurement uses the current-potential method.
• A current of known value (I+) is passed through the sensor along the
“current” lead wires.
• The voltage generated across the sensor is measured using the
“potential” lead wires (Vsensor) and the sensor’s resistance is calculated
by dividing the measured voltage by the Known current.

𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼

52
 RTD Packages
• Two basic packages
– Thin Film
– Wire Wound

53
 RTD Packages
• Probe Type

54
 Thermistor
• Thermistor represents another
class of temperature sensor that
measures temperature through
change of material resistance.

• The characteristics of these

devices are very different from
those of the RTDs and depend
upon the peculiar behavior of
semiconductor resistance versus
temperature.

55
 Sensitivity
• The sensitivity of thermistor is a significant factor in
their application.

• Changes in resistance 10% per 0C are not uncommon.

• Thus a thermistor with a normal resistance of 10KΩ

at some temperature may change by 1K Ω for 1oC
change in temperature.

56
 Response Time
• For smallest bead thermistor in an oil bath (good
thermal contact) response time of 0.5s is typical.

• Same thermistor in still air will respond in 10s.

• When encapsulated, the time response is further

increased due to poor thermal contact.

57
 Example-6
• A thermistor is to monitor room temperature. It has a
resistance of 3.5𝐾Ω at 20℃ with a slope of −10%/℃.
The dissipation constant is 𝑃𝐷 = 5𝑚𝑊/℃. It is proposed
to use the thermistor in the divider, as shown below, to
provide the voltage of 5𝑉 at 20℃. Evaluate the effect of
self heating.

58
 Example-6
• At 20℃ thermistor resistance will be 3.5𝐾Ω
𝑅𝑇𝐻
𝑉𝐷 = 10𝑉
3.5𝐾 + 𝑅𝑇𝐻

3.5𝐾
𝑉𝐷 = 10𝑉 = 5𝑉
3.5𝐾 + 3.5𝐾

• Let us now consider the effect of self heating

𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅𝑇𝐻

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𝑃= = 7.1𝑚𝑊
3.5𝐾 59
 Example-6
• Temperature rise of thermistor can be calculated as
𝑃
Δ𝑇 =
𝑃𝐷
7.1𝑚𝑊
Δ𝑇 = = 1.42℃
5𝑚𝑊/℃

• Actual resistance is given as

𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 3.5𝐾Ω − 1.42℃(0.1/℃)(3.5𝐾Ω)

𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 3 𝐾Ω

• Sot he divider voltage is 𝑉𝐷 = 4.6𝑉.

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END OF LECTURE-1

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