Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Chemistry
Chapter 1: Introduction
Lecture Notes
What is Chemistry?
• Chemistry is considered to be the central science
• Chemistry is the study of matter
• Matter is the “stuff” that makes up the universe
• The fundamental questions of Chemistry are:
• How can matter be described?
• How does one type of matter interact with other types of
matter?
• How does matter transform into other forms of matter?
Scientific Method
1. Recognize a problem
Make observation
Ask a question
2. Make an educated guess - a hypothesis
Predict the consequences of the hypothesis
3. Perform experiments to test the predictions
Does experiment support or dispute hypothesis?
Mass
Density
Volume
Mass
Volume
Density
Matter
• Fahrenheit Scale, °F
Water’s freezing point = 32°F, boiling point = 212°F
• Celsius Scale, °C
Temperature unit larger than the Fahrenheit
Water’s freezing point = 0°C, boiling point = 100°C
• Kelvin Scale, K
Temperature unit same size as Celsius
Water’s freezing point = 273 K, boiling point = 373 K
Temperature of ice water and boiling water.
Heat
• Heat is the flow of energy due to a temperature
difference
Heat flows from higher temperature to lower
temperature
• Heat is transferred due to “collisions” between
atoms/molecules of different kinetic energy
• When produced by friction, heat is mechanical
energy that is irretrievably removed from a
system
• Processes involving Heat:
1. Exothermic = A process that releases heat energy.
Example: when a match is struck, it is an exothermic
process because energy is produced as heat.
2. Endothermic = A process that absorbs energy.
Example: melting ice to form liquid water is an endothermic
process.
Heat (cont.)
Bases
Taste bitter
Usually metal containing hydroxides
Substances that accept protons (H+) when dissolved in
water
Example: potassium hydroxide
KOH(aq) + H3O+ K+(aq) + H2O (l)
Naming Acids
Lets separate acids into 2 types:
Acids that contain oxygen
Acids that do not contain oxygen
Naming acids containing oxygen:
For acids containing “-ate” anions:
1. Use root of the anion (for sulfate, SO42-, use sulfur)
2. Add “-ic” suffix then end with “acid”
Example: H2SO4 is sulfuric acid
Energy
Released (Q)
Products
Endothermic Reactions
Internal
Energy Activation
Energy (EA) Products
Energy
Absorbed (Q)
Reactants
Energy in Reactions (cont.)
Internal
Energy
Low Activation
Energy (EA)
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l)
Large amount of
Energy Released
(Q)
2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Catalysts
• Catalysts are substances that speed up chemical
reactions
Allow reactions to occur that might not otherwise take
place (due to low temperature for example)
Lower activation energy for a chemical reaction
Do not participate in the reaction
They may undergo a chemical change as a reactant but they are
always recycled as a product (so there is no net change in the
catalyst molecule)
• Catalysts are indicated in a chemical reaction by
placing the chemical formula over/under the
reaction arrow.
Example:
catalyst
Reactants Products
Catalysts & Energy in Reactions
Activation Energy
with catalyst
Reactants
Products
Endothermic or Exothermic?
(that is the question…)
In chemical reactions:
Energy is required to break bonds (energy absorbed)
Energy is released when bonds are formed
• The amount of energy required to break a chemical bond is
the same as the energy released when the bond is formed,
this is called Bond Energy
• During a chemical reaction:
Energy is absorbed equal to the bond energies for all
bonds broken in the reactants
Energy is released equal to the bond energies for all
bonds formed in the products
• Endothermic reactions absorb more energy than they
release
• Exothermic reactions release more energy than they absorb
Balancing Chemical Reactions
• According to the Law of Mass Conservation (& John
Dalton!) matter is never created nor destroyed
All atoms in the reactants of a chemical reaction must be
accounted for in the products
• The Basic Process:
Identify all reactants & products in the reaction & write out
their formulas (this is the unbalanced chemical equation)
Count the number of each atom for each compound for each
reactant & product
(these values must be the same for both reactants & products when the reaction
is balanced!)
Starting with the most “complicated” molecule,
systematically adjust the coefficients to balance # of the
atoms on each side of the reaction (balance one atom at a
time)
Repeat until all atoms are balanced for the reaction
Now you have a balanced chemical equation!
Balancing Chemical Reactions
(example)
When sodium metal is added to water a violent
reaction takes place producing aqueous
sodium hydroxide and releasing hydrogen
gas.
1. Write out the unbalanced chemical reaction:
K+ Ag+ K+
Ag I
I-
NO3- NO3-
Dissociation
• ionic compounds
metal + nonmetal (Type I & II)
metal + polyatomic anion
polyatomic cation + anion
• when ionic compounds dissolve in water the
anions and cations are separated from each
other; this is called dissociation
• we know that ionic compounds dissociate when
they dissolve in water because the solution
conducts electricity
Dissociation (examples)
• potassium chloride dissociates in water into
potassium cations and chloride anions
KCl(aq) = K+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
K Cl K+ Cl-
K+
K SO4 K SO42-
K+
Process for Predicting the Products of
a Precipitation Reaction
1) Determine what ions each aqueous reactant has
2) Exchange Ions
(+) ion from one reactant with (-) ion from other
3) Balance Charges of combined ions to get formula
of each product
4) Balance the Equation
count atoms
5) Determine Solubility of Each Product in Water
solubility rules
if product is insoluble or slightly soluble, it will
precipitate
Solubility Rules
1. Most compounds that contain NO3- ions are soluble
2. Most compounds that contain Na+, K+, or NH4+
ions are soluble
3. Most compounds that contain Cl- ions are soluble,
except AgCl, PbCl2, and Hg2Cl2
4. Most compounds that contain SO42- ions are
soluble, except BaSO4, PbSO4, CaSO4
5. Most compounds that contain OH- ions are slightly
soluble (will precipitate), except NaOH, KOH, are
soluble and Ba(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 are moderately
soluble
6. Most compounds that contain S2-, CO32-, or PO43-
ions are slightly soluble (will precipitate)
Ionic Equations
• equations which describe the chemicals put into the water and
the product molecules are called molecular equations
KCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
• equations which describe the actual ions and molecules in the
solutions as well as the molecules of solid, liquid and gas not
dissolved are called ionic equations
K+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) K+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + AgCl(s)
• ions that are both reactants and products are called spectator
ions
K+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) K+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + AgCl(s)
6.022 1023
(2.5 moles) 1.5 10 24
molecules
1 mole
Mole Calculations (2)
• Moles to Grams
Multiply the # of moles by atomic mass
Example: How many grams in 2.5 moles of carbon?
12.01 grams
(2.5 moles) 30. grams ( or 3 101
)
1 mole
• Grams to Moles
Divide the mass in grams by atomic mass
Example: How many moles are in 2.5 grams of lithium?
1 mole
(2.5 grams) 0.36 moles ( or 3.6 101
)
6.941 grams
Percent Composition
• Percentage of each element in a compound (by
mass)
• Can be determined from:
1. the formula of the compound or
2. the experimental mass analysis of the compound
part
% Composition 100%
whole
Note: The percentages may not always total to 100%
due to rounding
Percent Composition Calculations
• To determine % Composition from the chemical
formula:
Determine the molar mass of compound
Multiply the molar mass of the element of interest by the
number of atoms per molecule then
Divide this value by the molar mass of the compound
(# atoms of A)(atomic mass of A)
% Composition of A 100%
molar mass of compound
Example: The % Composition of sodium in table salt
1. The molar mass of NaCl is 58.44 g/mol
2. There is 1 atom of Na in each NaCl molecule
3. The atomic mass of Na is 22.99
1 22.99
% Composition of Na 100% 39.33%
58.44
Percent Composition Calculations
Perform the following % Composition
calculations:
1.The % composition of carbon in carbon
monoxide
2.The % composition of oxygen in water
3.The % composition of chlorine in sodium
hypochlorite
Ch 100: Fundamentals for
Chemistry
Ch 9: More on Chemical Reactions
Lecture Notes (Sections 9.1 to 9.2)
Chemical Equations:
What do they tell us?
• A properly written chemical equation will
provide the following information:
1. All reactants & products involved in the
reaction
2. The physical state of all reactants & products
3. The presence of any catalysts involved in the
chemical reaction
4. The relative quantity of all reactants &
products
Information Given by the
Chemical Equation
• Balanced equation provides the relationship
between the relative numbers of reacting
molecules and product molecules
2 CO + O2 2 CO2
2 CO molecules react with 1 O2 molecules to
produce 2 CO2 molecules
Information Given by the
Chemical Equation
• Since the information given is relative:
2 CO + O2 2 CO2
200 CO molecules react with 100 O2 molecules to produce
200 CO2 molecules
2 billion CO molecules react with 1 billion O2 molecules to
produce 20 billion CO2 molecules
2 moles CO molecules react with 1 mole O2 molecules to
produce 2 moles CO2 molecules
12 moles CO molecules react with 6 moles O2 molecules to
produce 12 moles CO2 molecules
Information Given by the
Chemical Equation
• The coefficients in the balanced chemical
equation shows the molecules and mole
ratio of the reactants and products
• Since moles can be converted to masses, we
can determine the mass ratio of the reactants
and products as well
Information Given by the
Chemical Equation
2 CO + O2 2 CO2
2 moles CO = 1mole O2 = 2 moles CO2
2 moles CO
3.2 moles O2 x 6.4 moles CO
1 mole O2
2 moles CO2
3.2 moles O2 x 6.4 moles CO2
1 mole O2
Ch 100: Fundamentals for
Chemistry
conc. of solute
amount of solute
amount of solvent
• Common usages of concentration:
Mass (m/v) conc. (units are grams/L, grams/mL, etc.)
Volume (v/v) conc. (unit-less, often % is used)
Molarity (units are moles/L or M)
Mass Percent (%)
• Concentration of a solute dissolved in a solvent
(in grams per unit gram of solution)
• To determine mass percent
Divide mass of solute (in grams) by the total mass of
solution (in grams) and multiply this ration by 100%
mass of solute
Mass % 100%
mass of solution
Example: What is the mass percent of 30.0 grams of NaCl
in a 150.0 gram solution?
30.0 grams NaCl
Mass % 100% 20.0%
150.0 grams solution
Questions: (a) How much CaCl2 is in 250.0 grams of solution
where the mass percent of CaCl2 is 30.0%? (b) How much Cl-
is in this solution?
Molarity
• Concentration of a solute (in moles per unit
volume) dissolved in a solvent
• SI units are moles/liter, or M (molarity or molar
concentration)
• To determine molarity from mass concentration
Simply a unit conversion from grams to moles (using
atomic or molar mass as the unit conversion)
Example: What is the molarity of a NaCl solution with
concentration of 30.0 grams/L?
The molar mass of NaCl is 22.99 + 35.45 = 58.44 grams/mol
30.0 grams
NaCl
1 mol
0.513 M
1L 58.44 grams