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MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
1
Chapter Outline
specimen
machine
4
Tensile Test
5
Important Mechanical Properties
from a Tensile Test
• Young's Modulus: This is the slope of the linear
portion of the stress-strain curve, it is usually
specific to each material; a constant, known value.
• Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at the
yield point, calculated by plotting young's modulus
at a specified percent of offset (usually offset =
0.2%).
• Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is the highest
value of stress on the stress-strain curve.
• Percent Elongation: This is the change in gauge
length divided by the original gauge length.
6
Terminology
Load - The force applied to a material during
testing.
Strain gage or Extensometer - A device used for
measuring change in length (strain).
Engineering stress - The applied load, or force,
divided by the original cross-sectional area of the
material.
Engineering strain - The amount that a material
deforms per unit length in a tensile test.
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
F
8
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
linear linear
elastic elastic
Plastic means permanent.
plastic 9
Typical stress-strain
behavior for a metal
showing elastic and
plastic deformations,
the proportional limit P
and the yield strength
σy, as determined
using the 0.002 strain
offset method (where there
is noticeable plastic deformation).
P is the gradual elastic
to plastic transition.
10
Plastic Deformation (permanent)
• From an atomic perspective, plastic
deformation corresponds to the breaking of
bonds with original atom neighbors and
then reforming bonds with new neighbors.
• After removal of the stress, the large
number of atoms that have relocated, do
not return to original position.
• Yield strength is a measure of resistance
to plastic deformation.
11
12
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.
tensile stress,
y
engineering strain,
p = 0.002
15
Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength
UTS 3 necking
Strain
yield Fracture
strength Hardening
y 5
2
Elastic region
Plastic slope =Young’s (elastic) modulus
Region yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
σ Eε Region
4
fracture
σ 1
E
ε E
σy
Strain ( ) (DL/Lo)
ε 2 ε1
Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
• Elastic Region (Point 1 –2)
- The material will return to its original shape
after the material is unloaded( like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in
this region.
σ
σ Eε or E
ε
σ : Stress(psi)
E : Elastic modulus (Young’s Modulus) (psi)
ε : Strain (in/in)
- Point 2 : Yield Strength : a point where permanent
deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will
no longer return to its original length.)
Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
• Strain Hardening
- If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the
curve will follow back to Point 3 with the same
Elastic Modulus (slope).
- The material now has a higher yield strength of
Point 4.
- Raising the yield strength by permanently straining
the material is called Strain Hardening.
Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.
• Stress-strain
behavior
found for
some steels
with yield
point
phenomenon.
21
T
E
N
S
I
L
E
P
R
O
P
E
R
T
I
E
22
S
Yield Strength: Comparison
Room T values
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
23
Tensile Strength, TS
• After yielding, the stress necessary to
continue plastic deformation in metals
increases to a maximum point (M) and
then decreases to the eventual fracture
point (F).
• All deformation up to the maximum
stress is uniform throughout the tensile
sample.
• However, at max stress, a small
constriction or neck begins to form.
• Subsequent deformation will be
confined to this neck area.
• Fracture strength corresponds to the
stress at fracture.
Region between M and F:
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break. 24
In an undeformed
thermoplastic polymer
tensile sample,
(a) the polymer chains
are randomly
oriented.
(b) When a stress is
applied, a neck
develops as chains
become aligned
locally. The neck
continues to grow
until the chains in the
entire gage length
have aligned.
(c) The strength of the
polymer is increased
25
Tensile Strength: Comparison
Room T values
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
26
Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, t:
Ft
Ao
original area
before loading
http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/index.htm
http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/strstr.htm
28
Example 1
Tensile Testing of Aluminum Alloy
A material that
suffers very
little plastic
deformation is
Ao Af
brittle.
• Another ductility measure: % AR x100
Ao
• Ductility may be expressed as either percent elongation (%
plastic strain at fracture) or percent reduction in area.
• %AR > %EL is possible if internal voids form in neck. 31
Toughness is Toughness
the ability to
absorb Lower toughness: ceramics
energy up to Higher toughness: metals
fracture (energy
per unit volume of
material).
A “tough”
material has
strength and
ductility.
Approximated
by the area
under the
stress-strain
curve. 32
Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)
tensile larger toughness
stress, (metals, PMCs)
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
21
Linear Elastic Properties
• Hooke's Law: =E
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(Young's modulus)
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi] 34
n: dimensionless
Engineering Strain
Strain is dimensionless.
35
Axial (z) elongation (positive strain) and lateral (x and y)
contractions (negative strains) in response to an imposed
tensile stress.
36
True Stress and True Strain
True stress The load divided by the actual cross-sectional
area of the specimen at that load.
True strain The strain calculated using actual and not
original dimensions, given by εt ln(l/l0).
38
Example 2:
Young’s Modulus - Aluminum Alloy
From the data in Example 1, calculate the modulus of
elasticity of the aluminum alloy.
Example 2: Young’s Modulus - Aluminum Alloy - continued
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
Composite data based on
Graphite GFRE( fibers)* reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
10
8 of aligned carbon (CFRE),
CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)* aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE)
Polyester
4 PET fibers.
PS
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
LDPE
41
0.2
Example 3: True Stress and True Strain
Calculation
Compare engineering stress and strain with true stress and
strain for the aluminum alloy in Example 1 at (a) the
maximum load. The diameter at maximum load is 0.497
in. and at fracture is 0.398 in.
Example 3 SOLUTION
Strain Hardening
An increase in y due to
plastic deformation.
Strain Hardening (n, K or C values)
44
Mechanical Behavior - Ceramics
47
The Bend Test for Brittle Materials
(a) The bend test often used for measuring the strength
of brittle materials, and (b) the deflection δ obtained by
bending
Flexural Strength
• Schematic for a 3-
point bending test.
• Able to measure the
stress-strain behavior
and flexural strength
of brittle ceramics.
• Flexural strength
(modulus of rupture or
bend strength) is the
stress at fracture.
See Table 7.2 for more values.
51
MEASURING ELASTIC MODULUS
• Room T behavior is usually elastic, with brittle failure.
• 3-Point Bend Testing often used.
--tensile tests are difficult for brittle materials.
24
Stress-Strain Behavior: Elastomers
3 different responses:
A – brittle failure
B – plastic failure
C - highly elastic (elastomer)
56
Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
57
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)
Hardness Testers
58
59
Conversion of
Hardness
Scales
63