CE 589

HIGH STRENGTH
CONCRETE

FALL 16-17
1
CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 1
HISTORICAL REVIEW AND MATERIALS USED

The development and application of HSC has greatly increased in

the last ten or twenty years all over the world.
HSC is not only applied to offshore concrete structures and
bridges, but also to high-rise buildings, prefabricated elements,
pavements, etc.
Concrete technology has developed in such a way that now
concrete strengths of up to 100 MPa and larger can be reached
without difficulties.
HSC can be defined as ; “ All concretes with a compressive
cylinder strength above the present existing limits in national
codes, i.e. about 60 MPa, and up to 130 MPa, the practical upper
limit for concretes with ordinary aggregates.”

2
CHAPTER 1

In Turkish Standard (TS 500);

 HSC: fc  35 MPa (fc  50 MPa)

 NSC: fc  16 MPa (fc  30 MPa

(fc : Equivalent cube compressive
strength)

3
CHAPTER 1

Historical Review:

 The use of concrete dates back at least 9000 years.

HSC has been used in special applications during
the whole century, especially in precast elements,
such as panels, piles and poles. Concrete in a
bridge built in Great Britain in the 20’s has today
strength levels between 75 and 120 MPa.
 The properties of cement have improved during the
years, especially concerning the early strength
development. This has led to higher quality
requirements in the codes. For instance, the 3-day
mortar strength of cement required in the British
codes was increased from 15 MPa to 23 MPa and
25 MPa.
4
CHAPTER 1

Historical Review:

 The maximum design strength of reinforced

concrete has also changed during the years.
 The introduction of silica fume and
superplasticizer during the 1970’s also made
it relatively easy to produce ready mixed
concrete with strength levels in the range of
100 MPa. The cement matrix was no longer
the limiting factor, but the properties of the
aggregates.
5
CHAPTER 1
Materials used and their
properties:
Cement:
 Strength development and strength potential in HSC depend
on the choice of cement. The clinker composition and the
fineness are factors that influence both early and final
strength.
 The clinker minerals C3S, C2S and C3A have the greatest
influence on the strength development in cement paste.
 C3S contributes both to a rapid early age strength
development and a high final strength.
 C2S hydrates somewhat slower, but can contribute
significantly to the final strength.
 C3A has particular influence on the early strength.

6
CHAPTER 1

 On the other hand, a high Specific

Surface leads to a rapid reaction. A
high degree of fineness, however, may
reduce the strength development after
28 days of curing. If a high early
strength is not necessary, a reduction
in C3A content and higher content of
C3S and particularly C2S will result in
a higher final strength.
7
CHAPTER 1

 Heat Generation: C2S < C3S < C3A

A high content of Alkalies will result in

an increased early strength and
reduced final strength potential.

8
CHAPTER 1

Slag and Fly-Ash:

 If fly ash or slag is ground into the cement,

the influence on strength is limited. The
early age strength may, however, be
reduced. This can be compensated by finer
grinding of the cement and improved curing
conditions. When adding fly ash during
concrete production, the workability is
normally improved due to lubricating effect
of spherical particles.
9
CHAPTER 1

Silica Fume: (SF)

 SF is a by-product of the melting process

use to produce silicon metal and ferrosilicon
alloys. The main characteristics of SF are its
high content of amorphous SiO2 ranging
from 85 to 98 %, mean particle size of 0.1-
0.2 micron and its spherical shape. SF acts
as a filler and as a pozzolan.

10
CHAPTER 1

Silica Fume: (SF)

 The use of SF as a replacement of a part of

the cement gives a considerable strength
gain. SF is 2-4 times more efficient than
P.C. as far as long-term strength is
concerned for concrete of normal strength.
 For most binder combinations, the use of SF
is the only way of producing concrete of
normal workability with a strength level
exceeding 80 MPa.
11
CHAPTER 1 Admixtures:
(Chemical Admixtures)
1. Water Reducers:
 Generally the main components of water
reducers or retarders are water soluble
organic compounds which can be divided
into 4 groups;
– Salts of lignosulfonic acid
– Hydroxy-carbolic acids
– Carbohydrates
– Other compounds, either organic or inorganic.
12
CHAPTER 1
Admixtures:
(Chemical Admixtures)
 Lignosulfonate based compounds are
the most commonly used water-
reducing admixtures. Water-reducing
admixtures and retarding admixtures
are often treated as one category
because the main component used for
retarders are also present in water-
reducing and retarding admixtures.
13
CHAPTER 1

2. Superplasticizers:
(high-range water reducers)
 They are divided into 4 main groups;
– Sulfonated melamine formaldehyde condensate (SMF)
– Sulfonated napthaline formaldehyde condensate (SNF)
– Modified lignosulfonates
– Others including sulfonic esters, carbohydrate esters.
 SMF and SNF based admixtures are more
commonly used, so most of the information
available refers to these compounds. They work
by helping to disperse particles of cement when
mixing water is added, which causes the cement
paste to behave more like a fluid.

14
CHAPTER 1

3. Air entraining Admixtures:

 The use of air-entraining admixture is
recommended to enhance durability when
concrete will be subjected to freezing and
thawing while wet. As compressive strength
increases and water-cement ratio decreases, air-
void parameters improve and entrained air
percentages can be set at the lower limits of the
acceptable range. Entrained-air has the effect of
reducing strength, particularly in HS mixtures,
and for that reasons it has been used only where
there is a concern for durability.

15
CHAPTER 1

4. Retarders:
 HSC mix designers incorporate high cement
factors that are not common to normal
economical concrete.
 A retarder is beneficial in controlling early
hydration. The addition of water to retemper the
mixture will result in marked strength reduction.
 Further, structural design frequently requires
heavy reinforcing steel and complicated forming
with attendant difficult placement of concrete.
 A retarder can control the rate of hardening in
the forms to eliminate cold joints and provide
more flexibility in placement schedules.

16
CHAPTER 1
5. Normal Setting Water
Reducers:
 They will provide strength increases
without altering rates of hardening.
 Their selection should be based on
strength performance.
 Increases in dosage above the
normal amounts will generally
increase strengths, but may extend
setting times.
17
CHAPTER 1
6. High Range Water Reducers:
(HRWR)

They provide high-strength performance,

particularly at early ages (24 hr).

18
CHAPTER 1

7. Accelerators:

 They are not normally used in HSC

unless early removal is critical.
 Accelerators used to increase the
rate of hardening will normally be
counterproductive in long-term
strength development.

19
CHAPTER 1

8. Admixture Combination:

 Combination of HRWR with normal-

setting water reducers or retarders
have become common to achieve
gain and control of setting times and
workability are possible with
optimized combination.

20
CHAPTER 1

AGGREGATES

Fine Aggregate:
 The optimum gradation of fine
aggregate for HSC is determined more
by its effect on water requirement
than on physical packing. Sand with a
FM of about 3 gave the best
workability and compressive strength.

21
 AGGREGATES
Coarse Aggregate:
 For optimum compressive strength with high
cement contents and low w/c ratio, the max. size of
coarse aggregate should be kept to a minimum, at
13 mm, or 10 mm.
 Max sizes of 19 mm and 25 mm also have been
used successfully. Smaller sizes of aggregates are
considered to produce higher concrete strength
because of less severe concentration of stress
around the particles, which are caused by
differences between the elastic moduli of the paste
and the aggregate.

22
CHAPTER 1
Lightweight Aggregate
(LWA):
 To reduce the density of the concrete, the natural aggregate may be
entirely or partly replaced by a light, industrially produced material.

 In HSC (LWA), this material is mainly sintered, expanded clay, shale,

fly ash or palletized foamed slag.

 The most important attributes of LWA are their high porosities and
their bonding capabilities with cement paste. The former are
responsible not only for absorption of water, but also for reduction in
particle strength and particle modulus of elasticity.

 These are inter-related but the latter probably has the more
important consequences for LWA suitable for HSC. Even with total
porosities of 40% to 45%, which are much weaker than ND
aggregates, concrete strengths of 65 to 75 MPa can be obtained.

23
CHAPTER 1

If LWA is dry:
 If dry LWA is used in producing concrete, then not
only will free water (and hence workability)
diminish rapidly during the first four minutes, but
other liquids added such as air-entraining agents
and superplasticizers, will also be absorbed.

 This can cause very variable behaviour. The best

procedure is adding enough water to counteract the
initial absorption to the dry aggregate in the mixer
to allow a short mixing time, or say one minute,
before adding the remaining ingredients.

24
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2
CONCRETE MIX DESIGN CALCULATIONS

Concrete mix proportions for HSC have varied widely

depending upon many factors. These are:
 Strength level required
 Test age
 Material characteristics
 Type of application
 Economics
 Structural requirement
 Manufacturing practicality
 Anticipated curing environment
 Time of years

25
CHAPTER 2

Mix Design Considerations:

 HSC produced by conventional mixing technologies,

are usually prepared with w/c ratios in the range of
0.22-0.40 and their 28 days compressive strength is
about 60 to 130 MPa when normal density
aggregates are used.
 To achieve this low w/c ratio and maintain proper
workability, it is necessary to use water-reducing
admixtures. Often, this is not sufficient to obtain
the strength values at the higher range, and for
that purpose the addition of pozzolanic additives is
necessary. SF has been shown to be particularly
useful in those applications, and is becoming the
most common additive for compressive strength
levels exceeding 80 MPa. 26
CHAPTER 2

Microstructure:
 The mechanical properties of the concrete
can be improved by obtaining a denser
packing of the solids. The paste-aggregate
bond can also be improved. In normal
strength concrete, the interfacial zone is
often a weak link, since it tends to be more
porous and heterogeneous than the bulk
paste matrix.
27
CHAPTER 2
 The addition of silica fume (SF) can drastically
change the microstructure of the paste at the
interface, causing it to be as dense as that of the
matrix.
 This provides a much more efficient bond between
the aggregate and the matrix.
 This effect of SF is associated with its ability to
pack densely at the aggregate surface, as well as
reduce the internal bleeding of the concrete.
 Due to these interfacial effects, the aggregate in
high strength SF concrete, are becoming active load
bearing components in the concrete, contributing to
the overall strength.
 This leads to a higher strength of the composite,
compared to its matrix, as the SF content increases.
Such influences may also account for the higher
strength of SF concretes, compared to concretes of
similar w/c ratio without SF.
28
CHAPTER 2

Normal Density Concrete:

 The properties of the aggregate are

important for the compressive strength an
E-Modulus of HSC.
 In normal strength concrete, the aggregate
has a higher strength and stiffness than the
cement paste. Failures in NSC are
characterized by fractures in the cement
paste and in the transition zone between
aggregate and cement paste.
29
CHAPTER 2

 Reduced w/c ratio therefore causes a great

improvement in compressive strength.
 In HSC, the capacity of the aggregate can
be the limiting factor.
 This may be either the result of the
aggregate being weaker than the low w/c
matrix, or alternatively it is not sufficiently
strong and rigid to provide the
strengthening effect.
 The mechanical properties of the fine
aggregate seem to have less importance.
30
CHAPTER 2

 Irregularly shaped aggregate, like crushed stone,

are considered to provide the highest strength [ACI
Com.363]. This is associated with an improved
bond between the paste and the aggregate.
 On the other hand, crushed stone reduces the
workability, increases the water requirement and
thus result in a higher w/c ratio, which again
reduces the aggregate bond strength.
 The choice between Crushed and Naturally rounded
aggregate is therefore a question of optimization
where the majority seem to put preference on
workability at low water content.

31
CHAPTER 2

LWA Concrete:
 The high porosity of LWA reduces its
strength and E-Modulus.
 For HSC a stronger matrix is required, either
by improving the cementitious component
(with SF and/or by superplasticizer) or by
reducing the water/cement ratio in the
cement paste.
 With good quality LWA and mix proportions
an excellent combination of strength and
density can be produced.
32
CHAPTER 2

 Ex./ Cement content = 385 kg/m3

 Silica Fume = 15 kg/m3
 Natural Sand = 600 kg/m3
 LWA Fines = 117 kg/m3
 LWA (4/16mm)= 554 kg/m3
 Water = 164 lt/m3
 Superplasticizer = 10 lt/m3
 Air Entrainment: No

 Slump obtained = 220 mm
 28 (cube) = 70 MPa
 Density (fresh)= 1880 kg/m3

33
CHAPTER 2

Water /Cement Ratio:

 The strength potential of concrete is
governed by the water/binder ratio, with the
binder including cement and mineral
admixtures such as Fly Ash and SF.
 For example, in HSC with SF, the strength
of SF concrete is greater than the strength
of a Portland Cement concrete of the same
w/b ratio.
34
CHAPTER 2

 In addition to the w/b ratio, the extend of hydration

reaction will also control the strength development.
 The hydration characteristics of binders in HSC with
SF at low w/b ratios are not well known.
 No reliable direct methods to determine the extend
of the SF reaction are commonly available.
 The presence of SF reduces the extend of hydration
of the cement, in particular at advanced age. This
reduction is higher at low w/(c+s) ratio. [FIP-CEB]

35
CHAPTER 3
CHATPTER 3
PROPERTIES of FRESH and HARDENED
CONCRETE
 3.1 Workability
 The structural use of HSC is very often accompanied by a dense reinforcement.
 To ensure a proper result in such members, a highly workable mix is mandatory.
 Some years ago, high quality concrete was automatically linked to low slump concrete.
But today, it is quite normal to specify slump values in the range of 200-260 mm. To
obtain such a mix at a low w/c ratio without the extensive addition of water and cement,
plasticizers have to be used.
 Often HSC is used in slender sections with dense reinforcement requiring a material of
high workability, or stiffer mixtures in pavements and slabs where extensive use of
vibration is usual.
 To avoid segregation of the coarse particles during the placing, a continuous particle
grading of the aggregate is preferred.
 Bleeding is seldom a problem due to the high amounts of fines.

36
CHAPTER 3

 Plasticizers
 Workability obtained by the use of high amounts
(dosages) of plasticisers is not directly comparable
to workability as a result of the high water content.
By use of air entraining admixtures, the viscosity
increases by the help of entraining air. However,
entrained air in the mixture results in a reduction of
strength of about 5% per 1% of additional voids.
 It should be noted, that because of such changes in
the rheological behavior, the SLUMP TEST, which is
used to characterize the consistency of normal
concretes may not be fully applicable to HSCs.

37
CHAPTER 3

Choice of Plasticizers

 It is a question of optimization on price,

period of required workability, acceptable
retardation of set and water-reducing effect.
 Very often this optimization ends up with a
combination of lignosulphonate-based
plasticizers and so-called superplasticizer.

38
CHAPTER 3

3.2 Placing and curing

 Equipment: All normal equipment could be used

for HSC.
 The required workability has to be met at the
moment of placing. This means that the loss of
plasticity during transport has to be compensated
for at the bathing plant, or preferably, by adjusting
the amount of superplasticizer in the auto-mixer at
the site just before discharging.
 If the low w/c ratio is a result of a high dosage of
plasticizers and a resulting low water content, the
contractor must consider the consequences of loss
of moisture during transport and placing.
39
CHAPTER 3

 Almost every HSC is far more exposed to the risk of

plastic shrinkage during the period of setting than
ordinary mixtures. This is a consequence of the
reduced tendency of water bleeding due to the
normal high content of added fines such as cement,
fly ash and silica fume in particular.
 Plastic shrinkage increases as; evaporation
increases (air temp., concrete temp., relative
humidity of air, wind speed,…[ACI305 R-91.. Evap.
Rate>0.5 kg/h/m2 should be avoided.]

40
CHAPTER 3

Curing

 In all concreting, a proper curing procedure

is mandatory to realize the quality potential
of the material. This applies in particular to
the skin of the structure.
 -water curing; provides better conditions
than sealing with plastic sheets or applying
a curing compound. Exposure to air drying
might reduce the quality of the
reinforcement cover considerably.
41
CHAPTER 3

3.3 Shrinkage

 Shrinkage is caused by the loss of water by evaporation or by

hydration of cement, and also by carbonation. The reduction
in volume (volumetric strain) is equal to 3 times the linear
contraction.
 Particularly, it is measured as linear strain in mm/mm and
expressed in 10-6.
 When the cement paste is plastic it undergoes a volumetric
contraction whose magnitude is of the order of 1% of the
absolute volume of dry cement.
 This contraction is known as PLASTIC SHRINKAGE. It is
caused by the loss of water by evaporation from the surface
of concrete or by suction of dry concrete below (see figure).

42
CHAPTER 3

Evaporating water

Bleeding water

water Fresh Concrete

Dry Concrete

43
CHAPTER 3

 The contraction induces tensile stresses in

the surface layers because they are
restrained by the non-shrinking inner
concrete, and since the concrete is very
weak in its plastic state, plastic CRAKING at
the surface can readily occur.
 Depends on: Rate of evaporation of water.
ACI305 R-91: evaporation rate>0.5
kg/h/m2.
44
CHAPTER 3

 -Temperatue; High temperatures during the setting and

hardening period will reduce the long-term strength of the
material.[2.58]
 In massive members, the curing temperature will tend to be
elevated due to the normal high content of cement. This, in
spite of the fact that the heat release per kg binder decreases
at low w/c ratios due to the lack of available water for
hydration.
 Elevated temperatures increase the risk of thermal cracking
due to internal or external restraint. In such cases, proper
actions should be taken to lower the temperature of the fresh
concrete by the addition of CRUSHED ICE or liquefied
nitrogen, and reduce the amount of Portland cement as much
as possible.

45
CHAPTER 4
CHATPTER 4
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES of HARDENED
CONCRETE

4.1 Behavior in Compression

 The uniaxial compressive strength is the most common parameter
used to characterize concrete.
 The expression “compressive strength” is however, not unique, but
dependent on geometry, size, age, curing conditions etc.
 For various reasons, such as inferior compaction and curing, the
characteristic in-situ strength may be lower than the corresponding
laboratory test specimen strength.
 Various codes assume a factor in the range;
0.75 to 0.9
 *The Relative increase in the long-term strength of a HSC after 28
days is generally lower than for a normal grade concrete. This is due
to lack of available free water for further hydration combined with a
possible limitation from the capacity of the aggregate.

46
CHAPTER 4
4.2 Stress-Strain Behavior in
Uniaxial Compression

 Axial stress versus strain curves for

concrete of compressive strength up
to 83 Mpa as shown in Fig. below.
 Figure

47
CHAPTER 4  The shape of the ascending part of the stress-strain
curve is more linear and steeper for HSC and the
starin at the maximum stress is sligthly higher for
high strength concrete. The slope of the
descending part of - curve becomes steeper for
HSC.
 This - curves can be obtained by using a closed-
loop testing machine. The specimen can be loaded
so as to maintain a constant rate of strain increase
and avoid unstable failure.
 HSC exhibits less internal microcracking than low
strength concrete for a given imposed axial strain.

 Figure
 As a result, the relative increase in lateral starin is
less for HSC.
48
CHAPTER 4

4.3 Modulus of Elasticity

 In 1934, Thoman and Raeder reported;

 EHSC=29-36 GPa for comp=69-76 MPa
 E was determined as the tangent slope of

- curve (uniaxial compression)

 Other investigators reported;

EHSC=31-45 GPa for comp=?

49
CHAPTER 4

4.4 Poisson’s Ratio:

 Experimantal data on values of Poisson’s ratio for HSC are

very limited.
Carrasquillo et al reported; (LWA-HSC)
 c= 73MPa (28days)
 =0.20
Perenclio and Klieder reported; (NW-HSC)
 c= 55-80MPa
 =0.20-0.28

Poisson’s ratio tends to decrease with increasing w/c ratio.

50
CHAPTER 4

 Kaplan reported; (by dynamic

measurements)
=0.23-0.32 (regardless of comp. str.,
coarse agg., and test age)
c= 17-79MPa
  can be found by dynamic and static
measurements.
51
CHAPTER 4

 The poisson’s ratio can be calculated from

the expression;
(DYNAMIC MEASUREMENT) ASTM C597-83,
BS4408:Part5:1974
 V: pulse velocity (mm/s)

 n: Resonant frequency (Hz)

 L: Length of beam (mm)

 P.S.  is the range of 0.20-0.24

52
CHAPTER 4
4.5 Modulus of Rapture
(Tensile Strength of Beams)

 The following equation was recommended for

prediction of tensile strength of NWC as measured
by Modulus of Rupture fr` from compressive
strength(fc`).
 fr`= 0.94 (fc’)0.5 MPa
 for 21MPa<fc`<83MPa
 fc`: cylinder compressive strength in MPa.
Beam used for this study were; 102x102x305 mm
(4”x4”x12”)

53
CHAPTER 4

4.6 Splitting Tensile Strength

 Dewar studied the relation between indirect tensile strength

(cylinder splitting str.) and compressive strength of concretes
having fc = 83.79 at 28 days.
 at low strengths; findir.=10%(fc)
 at high strengths; findir.= 5%(fc)
fslpit.(crushed rock agg. concrete) = 1.08 fsplit.(gravel
agg. concrete)
 Carraquillo, Nilson & Slate; (NSC)
 fsplt=0.59 (fc’)0.5 for 21<fc`<83 MPa

 ACI 318 overestimates the modulus of elasticity for

comp>41MPa.

54
 CHAPTER 4


Graph

55
CHAPTER 4

 A correlation between the modulus of

elasticity (Ec) and compressive
strength (fc`)for NSC was reported as
follows:
Ec = 3320+6900 MPa
For 21< fc`<83 MPa

56
CHAPTER 4

4.7 Fatique Strength

 Available data on fatique behavior of HSC is

very limited.
Bennet and Muir: Fatique strength in axial
compression up to 76.9 MPa
 After 1 million cycles; strength varied
between 66 and 71% of the static strength
for a minimum stress level of 8.6 MPa.
 The fatique strength of HSC is the same as
that for concretes of lower strengths.

57
CHAPTER 4

4.8 Unit weight

 Slightly higer than Low strength

concrete (LSC) made with the same
materials.

58
CHAPTER 4

4.9 Thermal Properties

 Thermal properties of HSC fall within

the approximate range for LSC.
 Quantities that have been measured
are specific heat, diffusivity, thermal
conductivity, and coefficient of thermal
expansion.

59
CHAPTER 4
4.10 Heat Evolution due to
Hydration

 The temperature rise within concrete due to

hydration depends on:
 1. cement content
 2. w/c ratio
 3. size of member
 4. ambient temperature
 5. environment.
60
CHAPTER 4

Freedman: Heat rise of HSC will be  6-8oC per 59 kg/m3 of cement.

concrete

Temp.

ambient

Time (hrs)

61
CHAPTER 4

4.11 Strength Gain with Age

 HSC shows a higher rate of strength

gain at early ages as compared to
lower-strength concrete, but at later
ages the difference is not significant.
(See Fig. below)

62
 CHAPTER 4


fig

63
CHAPTER 4

It seems likely that the higher rate of

strength developement of HSC at early
ages is caused by;
 Increase in the internal curing
temperature in the concrete due to a
higher heat of hydration.
 Shorter distance between hydration
particles in HSC due to low w/c ratio.
64
CHAPTER 4

4.12 Freeze Thaw Resistance

 Information about air content requirement for HSC to produce

adequate durability is contradictory.

Tynes, Saucier and Smidth:

 Accelerated freeze-thaw tests
 Air-entrainment should be considered for HSC
 (despite the loss of strength)

Perenchio, Klieger:
 Using air-entrainment increases tensile strength of HSC.

65
CHAPTER 4

4.13 Shrinkage

Little information is available on the shrinkage

behavior of HSC.
 -A relatively high initial rate of shrinkage has been
reported, but after drying for 180 days there is little
difference between the shrinkage of HSC and LSC
made with dolomite or limestone.
 Reducing the curing period from 28 to 7 days
caused a sligth increase in the shrinkage.
 Shrinkage was unaffected by changes in w/c ratio.

66
CHAPTER 4

4.14 Creep
 Parrot: Total strain observed in sealed HSC under a sustained
loading of 30% of the ultimate strength was the same as that of LSC
when expressed as a ratio of the short-term stain.
 Under drying conditions, this ratio was 25% lower than that of LSC.
 The total long-term strains of drying and sealed HSC were 15 and
65% higher, respectively, for a corresponding LSC at a similar
relative stress level.
 Ngab et al.: The creep of HSC made with high-range water reducers
decreased significantly.
 The maximum specific creep was less for HSC than for LSC loaded at
the same age. However, HSC are subjected to higher stresses.
Therefore, the total creep will be about the same for any strength of
concrete.
 As is found with LSC, creep decreases as the age at loading
increases, specific creep increases with increases w/c ratio, and there
is a linear relationship with the applied stress.

67
CHAPTER 5

CHATPTER 5
DURABILITY of HIGH
STRENGTH CONCRETE

68
CHAPTER 5

5.1 Porosity and Permeability

 Porosity and permeability are two of the

most important parameter as far as the
concrete durability is concerned.
 Permeability is a concept which includes
different transport mechanisms through the
pores and the cracks of the concrete.

69
CHAPTER 5

Transported substances can be;

 gases; air, CO2, O2, and water vapor.
 fluids; mostly water.
 water soluble substances; e.g. chlorides.

Different transport mechanisms are involved;

 Convection (permeation because by a pressure head)
 Diffusion (permeation caused by a concentration difference)
 Capillary suction.

The transport takes mainly place in the;

 open capillary pores
 macro pore system due to incomplete compaction
 cracks

70
CHAPTER 5

 The amount of capillary pores is a result of the w/c

ratio of the mix.
 Thus both the STRENGTH and the PERMEABILITY
of concrete is a consequence of its POROSITY.
 This means that HSC is generally also a HIGH
QUALITY CONCRETE concerning DURABILITY.
 The use of Silica Fume (SF) results in a further
reduction of the permeability.
 Inadequate curing might result in higher
permeability both due to cracking and to lack of
water for the cement hydration near the surface.
71
CHAPTER 5

References

 CEB Design Guide on Durable

Concrete Structures, No: 182, Second
Ed. 1989.
 Condensed Silica Fume in Concrete,
FIP Publication, Thomas Telford,
London 1988.

72
CHAPTER 5

5.2 Chemical Deterioration

 In general, the resistance of HSC to chemical
deterioration is expected to be better than that of
normal concrete. The cementitious matrix of HSC
is often produced with pozzolanic additives such as
SF.

This chemical modification is important for enhancing

the durability performance in;
 sulphate solutions
 acidic environments
 cases where alkali-aggregate attack may take place

73
CHAPTER 5

5.3 Frost Resistance

Two different types of tests are commonly
employed to rate frost resistance;

 a) ASTM 666 which records volume

degradation due to fast freeze/thaw cycles
in fresh water,

 b) ASTM C672 which records surface scaling

after slower freeze/thaw cycles with the
surface covered by salt solution.

74
CHAPTER 5

 Salt scaling:
For HSC, the general picture is that very
good resistance to salt scaling may be
achieved without air entrainment.
 Volume degradation:
Resistance of HSC to volume
degradation is difficult to achieve and
may require good air entrainment.
75
CHAPTER 5

 Recent work has demonstrated that the result of salt-scaling

tests depends on the entire curing-moisture history of the
concrete as well as on some test parameters.
 There are several examples of HSC without air-entrainment
that has performed well such tests;
 w/c=0.35 c=67 MPa Negligible scaling up to 250cycles.

 w/c+s=0.36 10% SF c=91.5 MPa Better than the

requirement after 140 cycles.

 w/c+s=0.27 10% SF c=115MPa No scaling at 140cycles.

 w/c=0.25 Very good resistance at 150cycles.

76
CHAPTER 5

5.4 Corrosion of Reinforcement

 Steel in concrete is protected against

corrosion by passivation. The reason for
this passivation is the alkalinity of concrete
as the pH value of the pore water runs up
to pH>12.5.
 In the case of such high pH-value, a
microscopic oxide layer is formed on the
steel surface, the so-called passive film
which impedes the dissolution of iron.
77
CHAPTER 5

Passive
layer
Steel bar

78
CHAPTER 5

This oxide layer may be destroyed by;

 A reduction in the pH value<9 (acidic)

 Increasing the chloride content above a

critical concentration.

 Carbonation reduces the alkalinity in the

concrete. This process depends on diffusion
of CO2 through the concrete and of the
amount of Ca(OH)2 in the concrete.
79
CHAPTER 5

 CEN pr. ENV 206;(European Standard on concrete-

Performance, production, placing and compliance
criteria); w/c<0.6 (structures exposed to
carbonation)

 Carbonation is not a problem for HSC since

w/c<0.4 for all concrete (with or without SF)

 CEB Design Guide for Durable Concrete Structures;

use “HSC with blended cements (slag, natural
pozzolans, fly ash, SF) and w/c<0.4” in the case of
severe chloride attack.

80
Famagusta, Water tank

81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
Famagusta Harbour

90
 Measuring corrosion
potential of a R/C slab

91
CHAPTER 6

CHAPTER 6
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
QUALITY CONTROL

92
CHAPTER 6
Quality Assurance in HSC
Production
 The production of HSC demands a high degree of accuracy both at
the mixing plant and during the placement and curing.

 Deviations from the mix compositions and the mixing process

combined with lack of control of the materials may cause a reduction
of the strength potential of the concrete.
 The water content is particularly important.
 Even small changes in the water/cement ratio may result in a large
variation of the strength potential.
 Proper control of w/c ratio is necessary.

 To ensure a proper measurement of the constituents at batching

plant, automatic weighing equipment is recommended.

93
CHAPTER 6

Aggregates:
 To produce a uniform material concerning
composition and workability, the constituents have
to be uniform as well.
 As it is normally the aggregate that is subject to the
lowest level of control during its production in the
pit, emphasis should be put on ensuring a uniform
quality of this before batching.
 The particle distribution is of particular importance
as are the amount of fines and the content of the
minerals which are harmful for the durability or
water requirement of the mix.

94
CHAPTER 6

Mixing time

 Depending on the consistency of the

mix and amount of dispersing agents,
a prolonged mixing time is
recommended.

95
CHAPTER 6

Compaction

 To obtain the potential strength of the

concrete mix, it is essential to ensure
efficient compaction in the structure.
 For that purpose, the consistency of the
fresh mix and the maximum aggregate size
should be adjusted to the spacing between
the reinforcing bars and the compaction
equipment.
96
CHAPTER 6

Columns, beams: Dmax<(1/5) (min. Dim.)

Slabs: Dmax<(1/3) (h)

Steel bars: Dmax<(3/4) (clear spacing)

97
CHAPTER 6

Curing

 During curing, early drying of the

concrete should be avoided.
 Special precautions should be taken to
prevent the developement of harmful
temperature differences which might
result in restraint and cracking.

98
CHAPTER 6

6.2 Test Methods

 Generally, HSC is more sensitive to

testing errors than concrete of lower
strength.

99
CHAPTER 6

Size and Shape of Specimens

The size and shape of specimens for testing HSC in

the laboratory differ from country to country.

 Norway: Characteristic compressive strength on

100mm cubes, 100x200 mm cylinders and 100x300
mm cylinders.
 France: 160x320 mm cylinders.
 USA: 152x305 mm cylinders and 100x200 mm
cylinders.
 Germany: 200 mm cube and 150 mm cube.
 ASTM C192: Diameter or edge ≥ 3 Dmax
100
CHAPTER 6
Table 6.1 Conversion factors between different cube and
cylinder specimens.

Cube Cylinder
Specimens 100 150 200 150/300
Cube 100 1 0.99 0.95 0.82
Cube 150 - 1 0.96 0.83
Cube 200 - - 1 0.87

101
CHAPTER 6
Table 6.2 Conversion factor cylinder strength / cube
strength of different concrete strengths and different
cylinder sizes.

100 mm cube 100x300 mm 150x300 mm

MPa cyl. strength cyl. strength
cyl / cube cyl / cube
66.3 0.73 0.75
79.7 0.73 -
97.0 0.77 0.77
115.4 0.82 0.83

102
CHAPTER 6

6.2.2 Capping Method

 The commonly used sulphur mortar capping

material is weaker than concrete.
 The scatter is high and the mean value is
less than the one obtained when testing
ground samples without capping.
 The problem of obtaining the strict
geometrical tolerance on the ends of the
specimens is eliminated by using cubes or
prisms cast in high quality molds.
103
CHAPTER 6

6.2.3 Compression Testing

 Should be in strict accordance with the relevant

requirements. (ISO 4012, ASTM C39, etc.)
 One way to reduce the maximum load in the
machine is to use smaller test specimens.
 HSC is more sensitive to stressing rate than low or
moderate strength concrete. But, Weigler reports;
the influence of the stressing rate decreased with
decreased w/c ratio.
 ASTM Committee: C09.03-01, testing HSC

104
CHAPTER 7

CHAPTER 7

HSC STRUCTURES AND

ECONOMICAL
CONSIDERATIONS

105
CHAPTER 7
7.1 HSC Structures
7.1.1 Buildings

 Columns of high-rise structures have been

the largest application of HSC in buildings.
Unacceptable oversized columns on the
lower floors can be avoided by the use of
HSC.
 Since 1972, more than 20 buildings in
Chicago have been constructed with
columns having a design compressive
strength of 62 MPa.
106
CHAPTER 7

 Information from the development of

the use of HSC in high-rise structures
is listed in Table 7.1 below.

107
CHAPTER 7
Table 7.1 Buildings with HSC

Building Location Year Total stories Max. Des. Str. (MPa)

Pacific Park Plaza CA 1983 30 45
Petrocanada Building Calgary 1982 34 50
Columbia Center Seattle 1983 76 66
South Wacher Tower Chicago 1989 79 83
Two Union Square Seattle 1989 58 115

108
Taipei 101, TAIWAN
Floors: 101
Height: 509 m, year:2004

109
Shanghai World Financial Center, CHINA
Floors: 101
Height: 492 m, year:2008

110
Petronas Towers
Kulala Lumpur, MALAYSIA
Floors: 88
Height: 452 m, year: 1998

111
CHAPTER 7

7.1.2 Bridges

 HSC has been used in many precast

prestressed bridge girders. In Table
7.2 some bridges with HSC are listed.

112
CHAPTER 7
Table 7.2 Bridges with HSC
Bridge Location Year Max span Max. Des. Str. (MPa)
(m)
Willous Toronto 1967 48 41
Paxo-Kennewick Washington 1978 299 41
Nitta Highway Japan 1968 30 59
Akkagawa Railway Japan 1976 46 79
Deutzer Germany 1978 185 69
Ottmarsheim France 1979 172 30
Boknasundet Norway 1990 190 60
113
Boknasundet Bridge,
Norway

114
Ottmarsheim Bridge,
France

115
CHAPTER 7

 During the past few years, there has been

rapid growth concern about the durability
properties of bridges which vary often are
exposed to a hostile environment.
 Combined with a normal requirement of a
service life of 100-120 years on the basic
infrastructure of a country this means that
these structures will often end up in HSC.

116
CHAPTER 7

Norwegian Ministry of Transportation:

Bridges,
w/c+s < 0.4 (s = fly ash or silica fume)
σc = 55-70 MPa

Denmark:
w/c+s < 0.35 (Due to durability)
σc = 50-60 MPa
117
CHAPTER 7

7.1.3 Offshore Structures

 HSC has been used in all offshore structures

in the north sea since the first concrete
platforms were built in the nearly 70s. Yet,
the term high strength has changed during
the years.
 HSC….early 70s…. σc=45 MPa (28-day)
 HSC….today……… σc=70 MPa (28-day)

118
CHAPTER 7
Table 7.3. Development of concrete strength in offshore structures in the North sea.

28 day cube strength (MPa)

Platform (year) Spec. Obtained Standard Obtained
grade mean Deviation grade
Ekofisk (1972) 40 45 2.3 41.6
Frigg CDP-I (1974) 40 43 2.6 39.2
Ninian Central (1978) 50 59 4.1 53.1
Oseberg A (1985) 60 76.7 3.6 71.5
Gullfalks C (1986) 65/70 79 3.4 75

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CHAPTER 7

7.1.4 Special Applications

 1982 - Underwater concrete bridge for

gas pipeline constructed (Norway)
 Large precast concrete elements
 σspec= 60, 65 MPa.
 σobt= 65, 75 MPa
 Length of bridge = 590 m (depth of
water 30 m)
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CHAPTER 7

1983 – Middle East (Gulf) Abu Dhabi UAE

 Precast elements
 σc= 60 MPa σachieved= 71 MPa
 To ensure durability in the hostile and aggressive
environment of the Middle East.

Japan: Sheds and barriers (prefabricated elements)

 σc= 75 MPa
 Designed to protect roads from snow and earth
avalanches and rock-falls.
 Steel fibers 0.6% by volume used.

121
CHAPTER 7

Safe Deposits:
 Turin (Italy): bank safe deposits (security reasons) 1988.
 Rapid hardening P.C.: 400 kg/m3)
 Condensed S. F.: 80
 Plasticizer: 16
 River sand: 545
 (4/7) Basalt crushed stone: 593
 (7/15) Basalt crushed stone: 796
 w/(c+s): 0.33
 slump: very low
 mean σc-28 = 95-100 MPa

122
CHAPTER 7

High Strength in Piles:

 Shopping center – Oslo City – 1986
 Number of piles: 250 (driven in clay
soil) (25-35 m depth)
 σc = 75 MPa
 Reduction in friction forces on piles
with consequently increased load
bearing capacity.
123
CHAPTER 7

HSC in Highway Pavements:

 Nordic countries: Steel studs in car
tyres to improve friction between tyres
and road in winter.
 To improve abrasion resistance of
roads: HSC is used.

124
CHAPTER 7

Norway:
Mix 1 Mix 2
PC 395 450
SF 20 75
Plasticizer 2 8
Superpla. 6 20-25
Sand 0/8 913 830
Crushed stone 6/16 - 900
Crushed stone 6/22 1000 -
w/(c+s) 0.37 0.22-0.24
slump (cm) 2-3 10
Mean σ28 cube 97 135
(MPa)

Mix 1: New road (E-18), (E-6) highway in Norway

Mix 2: Repair work on old concrete pavement. 125
CHAPTER 7
7.2 Needs for Research
7.2.1 Materials Research

Mix Design of HSC:

 Workability, strength, durability.
 Type of cement, admixtures, silica fume,
selection of aggregates. HSLWA concrete.

Rheological Behavior of HSC and Properties of

Fresh Concrete:
 How to measure and control workability.
 Rheological models: Bighham or Newton
 Shrinkage cracking.
126
CHAPTER 7

 Aggregate:
 ND, LWA
 Influence of aggregates on strength and ductility should be
studied in detail.

 Interface paste/aggregate:
 Microcracking:
 Fracture Behavior and Ductility:
 Control of the E-Modulus:
 Fire Resistance and Temperature Effects:
 Rate Effects: (Strain rate)
 Testing Procedures:
 Durability:

127
CHAPTER 7
7.3 Economical Considerations
7.3.1 Introduction

 HSC is a state of the art material and like most

state of the art materials, it commands a premium
price.
 In many areas and for many uses, the benefits of
HSC more than compensate for the increased costs
of raw materials and quality control.
 Basically, HSC will carry a compression load at less
cost than any lower strength concrete.
 Chicago based civil engineers; (1975)
 Load : 445 kN, σc= 41 MPa………….$5.02/storey
128
CHAPTER 7

 σc= 52 MPa………….$4.21/storey
 σc= 62 MPa………….$3.65/storey
 The ratio should remain same in 2000.

129
CHAPTER 7

1976: Architectural Record noted:

 A column of 75x75 cm, σc= 41 MPa,
4% steel of column are steel is
required
 A column of 75x75 cm, σc= 62 MPa,
1% steel of column are steel is
required (min. allowed by code)

130
CHAPTER 7

 Cost Studies:
 Materials Service Corporation: 1983
 Study made for a column supporting a design load
(1.4D+1.7L) of 4.45 MN and based on the following
prices.
 Reinforcing steel: $760/ton in place
 48 MPa concrete: $104 /m3
 62 MPa concrete: $111 /m3
 76 MPa concrete: $135 /m3
 97 MPa concrete: $168 /m3
 Formwork: $364/m3 in place.

131
CHAPTER 7

 Case Histories:
Case #1: 1968, Philadelphia 1st high rise office building.
 σc= 41 MPa
 span length = 9m
 Columns were compared by designing for σc= 55 MPa.
 60% reduction in reinforcing steel with 55 MPa, 25 fewer
splices per column (labor and time cost saving)
 Column size can be reduced from (915x1170mm) to
(760x760mm). Eliminates the additional structural steel on the
job.
 Result: Reduced size in columns by increased strength (55
MPa) saved about $ 530.000 in 1968.

132
CHAPTER 7

Case #2: 1978, New York – Palace hotel

 σc= 55 MPa
 Building were designed in the beginning to build the lower
floors using structural steel, and reinforced concrete structure
for hotel facilities.
 Engineers converted the design. Ballroom and restaurant
areas required large column spacing.
 Limitation of σc= 41 MPa would result in large and
uneconomical columns.
 Result: Lower five levels of the hotel, column sizes were
reduced by approximately 25 %. About 10% less reinforcing
steel were used due to strength of concrete.

133
Ekofisk Platform

134
Oseberg A Platform

135
Frigg Platform

136
Ninian Central Platform

137