PROPERTIES OF CULTURE

MAHREEN IFTIKHAR
What Is Culture
CULTURE
E. B. Tylor, the first professional anthropologist, proposed a definition of culture that includes all human experience:
“culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of society”

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

In the past, anthropologists attempted to make a simple distinction between society and culture. Society was said as patterns
of relationships among people within a specified territory, and culture was viewed as the by-products of those relationships

ASPECTS/ TYPES OF CULTURE

Material culture consists of the physical products of human society (ranging from weapons to clothing styles), whereas
Nonmaterial culture refers to the intangible products of human society (values, beliefs, and norms)
Cultural anthropologists/Sociologists investigate the material culture of the societies, they also examine the relationship
between the material culture and the nonmaterial culture that represent the thinking patterns of a society
Ideal culture: it is the goal of society. It can never be achieved fully because some part of it remain out of practice. This culture
is explained in books, speeches. Islam is our ideal culture, we claim to be true Muslims and this claim is our idea culture but how
far we are Muslims in practice is real culture
Real culture: the part of the culture which people adopt in their culture. The whole of the culture is never followed. We all are
Muslims but we don’t follow if fully so the part of Islam which we follow is real culture
Culture Is Learned
Social animals (human beings) learn from other members of their group on the basis of “human
capacity to learn", in other words unique ability of human species is “learning”
We do not inherit our culture through our genes in the way we inherit our physical
characteristics(like sex, color, height). Instead, we obtain our culture through the process of
enculturation
Enculturation is the process of social interaction through which people learn
and acquire their culture
Animals also may learn from experiences; for example, they avoid fire after discovering that it
hurts
For instance, Wolves learn hunting strategies from other pack members
Such social learning is particularly important among monkeys and apes as well
Our cultural learning depends on the “human capacity to use symbols”, (signs that have no
natural connection to the things). People gradually internalize the established/defined system
of meanings and symbols to express their feelings throughout the lives
Human acquire their culture both consciously (through formal learning) and unconsciously
(through informal interaction)
Culture is taught directly, as when parents tell their children to say “thank
you” when someone gives them something or does them a favor
Culture is transmitted through observation. Children pay attention to the
things that go on around them. They modify their behavior not just because
other people tell them to do it, but as a result of their own observations or
growing awareness of what their culture considers right and wrong
Culture is absorbed unconsciously For example, North Americans acquire
their culture’s notion of standing apart while talking to each other, they are
not being told directly to maintain a certain distance but through a gradual
process of observation and experience they have learnt it. On the flip side,
no one tells Latins to stand closer together, but they learn it as part of their
cultural tradition
Anthropologists also accept “a doctrine” (principle, rule) “the psychic unity of
man” It means that although all individuals differ in their emotional and
intellectual capacities, but have equivalent capacities for culture’ learning

Regardless of their genes or physical appearance, people can learn any cultural
tradition as well
To understand this point, see the following Example
Americans and Canadians, that are genetically mixed descendants of
people from all over the world. As our ancestors are lived in different countries,
continents and participate in hundreds of cultural traditions. This is the main
reason that how immigrants easily adapt a new culture and adjust themselves in
a new ecology
In other words, we can see the glimpse of many cultures (like Spanish, Indian,
Pakistani) on American and Canadian’ culture
Culture Is Shared
The main attribute of the culture is, It is not individuals’ oriented rather than groups’ oriented. In
other words, culture is based on shared meanings that are to some extend “Public”. In this way,
such shared beliefs, values, memories, expectations link all the people who grow up in the same
culture
Today’s parents were yesterday’s children as they grew up, they absorbed certain values and
beliefs and then transmitted it to the next generations. Thus, People become the agents of
enculturation for their children, just as their parents were for them
Although a culture constantly changes but certain fundamental beliefs, values, worldviews and
child-rearing practices endure (exist, sustain, stand)
Example of Enduring Shared Enculturation: As children, when we didn’t finish a meal, our
parents may have reminded us of starving children in some foreign country, just as our
grandparents might have done a generation earlier
American culture places the idea of Individual, American are fond of saying that everyone is
unique and special in some way. However in American culture, individualism itself is a distinctive
shared value
Despite the American notion that people should “make up their own minds” and “have a right to
their opinion”, people share their views and beliefs with others (we mostly agree and feel
comfortable with people who are socially, economically and culturally similar to ourselves). This is
one reason why humans tend to socialize with each other
Culture Is Symbolic
According to Leslie White culture is originated, when our ancestors acquired the ability
to use symbols, to bestow meaning on a thing or event, and to grasp such meanings
A symbol stands for something else within a particular language or culture. There is no
obvious or natural connection between the symbol and what it symbolizes
Holy water is a potent (strong/powerful) symbol in Roman Catholicism. The association
between a symbol (water) and what is symbolized (holiness) is arbitrary (ordinary/
illogical). Water is not intrinsically holier than milk, blood, or other natural liquids nor holy
water is chemically different from ordinary water
Holy water is a symbol within Roman Catholicism, as it has particular meaning for
Catholics. They share such common belief on the basis of their learning or transmit it
across the generations
A symbol is something verbal or nonverbal, Symbols are usually linguistic (verbal) while
there are also nonverbal symbols, such as flags that stand for countries’ freedom
For hundreds and thousands of years, humans have shared “Abilities”. These abilities are to
learn, to think symbolically, to manipulate language, to use tools or other cultural products
in organizing their lives or in coping with their environments
Every contemporary human population has the ability to use symbols for maintaining the
culture. Our nearest relatives (chimpanzees and gorilla) have rudimentary (basic/simple)
cultural abilities. However, no other animal has possessed such cultural abilities; to learn, to
communicate, to store, to process, and use information—to that extent as Homo has
Culture Is Integrated
Cultures are not haphazard (chaotic) collections of customs and beliefs. Integration
means “organization of traits” into one another to make a complex whole(society). The
institutions, values, norms, roles, status all are organized together in a culture
A heap of bricks is not a house, The pieces of wood are not called a table, The
parts of watch can not called a watch until they are fitted into one another
All the institutions and groups of people are organized together/ interrelated to form a
unified social system in society ( the different parts of the culture are fitted together to
make function as a whole)
In family: the role of father, mother and their children are specified and they
perform their roles according to their social status in a culture. Such system of relationship
among the members is called family integration
Similarly all social systems, like education, family(marriage, kinship), religion,
political and recreation are culturally integrated
In a Culture, all parts are fitted in such a way that one depends upon the
other and withdrawal on one part will dysfunction the whole culture. Like
If one part of the system changes (e.g. the economy), other parts
change as well. (e.g. family, marriage, political, education)
For example, during the 1950s, most American’ women planned
domestic careers as homemakers and mothers. Work competes with
marriage and family’ responsibilities and reduces the time available to
invest in child care and family

If a trait in a culture fails to function, there is disintegration in the culture

(by disintegration means failure of the part to function). This leads to
social disorganization which causes the social problems in any society
All Cultures train their individual members to share the certain
personality traits (honesty, hard work, truth, generosity). central or
core values of each culture distinguish it from others
For instance, the “work ethic” and “individualism” are core
values that have integrated in American culture for generations.
While “respect for elders” and “collective conscious” are core
values of Pakistani culture
Respect for the teacher is an important trait (core value) of
Pakistani educational system
Nikkah is the central complex (core value) in the institution of
Muslim Marriage
Culture is Adaptive and Maladaptive
Humans have both biological and cultural ways of coping with
environmental stresses. Besides our biological means of adaptation, we
also use “Cultural Adaptive kits,” (which contain customary activities
and norms etc.)
In this discussion, let’s begin with the point that what’s good for the
individual isn’t necessarily good for the group. Sometimes adaptive
behavior that offers short-term benefits to particular individuals may
harm the environment/culture and threaten the group’s long-term
survival
For example, being an immigrant in any foreign culture to adopt or
practice such norms which are against to his own religion, ethics or
culture, just to get material gains or to be the part of that culture.
Another example, the association (links) of few Muslims with the
MAFIA (culture of Terrorism) is causing countless problems for the rest of
Muslims across the world
Sometimes cultural traits, patterns and inventions also can be
maladaptive, threatening for the group’s existence/survival
Air conditioners help us to deal with heat, as fires and
furnaces protect us against the cold. Automobiles permit us to
make a living by getting us from home to workplace. But the
byproducts (results/side- effects) of such “beneficial”
technology often create new problems.
Chemical emissions (release/discharge/secretion) increase
air pollution, deplete the ozone layer, and contribute to global
warming. Many cultural patterns (practices), such as
overconsumption and pollution, appear to be maladaptive in
the long run
Culture And Nature
Culture takes the natural biological urges that we share with other
animals and teaches us how to express them in particular ways. People
have to eat, but culture teaches us what, when, and how. In many
cultures people have their main meal at noon, but most North Americans
prefer a large dinner. Midwesterners dine at 5 or 6 p.m., Spaniards at 10
p.m. English people may eat fish for breakfast, while North Americans
may prefer hot cakes and cold cereals. Brazilians put hot milk into strong
coffee, whereas North Americans pour cold milk into a weaker brew.
Cultural habits, perceptions, and inventions mold “human nature” in
many directions. People have to eliminate wastes from their bodies. But
some cultures teach people to defecate squatting, while others tell them
to do it sitting down.
A generation ago, in Paris and other French cities, it was customary for
men to urinate almost publicly, and seemingly without embarrassment.
Our “bathroom habits” including waste elimination, bathing, and
dental care, are parts of cultural traditions that have converted
natural acts into cultural customs.
Our culture and cultural changes—affect the ways in which we
perceive nature and human nature. Through science, invention, and
discovery, cultural advances have overcome many “natural”
limitations. We prevent and cure diseases such as polio and smallpox
that felled our ancestors. Culture, of course, has not freed us from
natural threats. Hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, and other natural
forces regularly challenge our wishes to modify the environment
through building, development, and expansion.
Culture is All-Encompassing, Cumulative ,
Gratifying & Super-organic
All-Encompassing: For anthropologists, culture includes much more than
refinement, taste, education sophistication and appreciation of the fine
arts. Not only college graduates but all people are “cultured.” The most
interesting and significant cultural forces are those that affect people‘
every day life, particularly those that influence children during
enculturation.
Culture, as defined anthropologically, encompasses features that are
sometimes regarded as trivial or unworthy of serious study, such as
“popular” culture. To understand contemporary North American culture,
we must consider television, fast-food restaurants, sports, and games. As a
cultural manifestation, a rock star may be as interesting as a symphony
conductor, a comic book as significant as a book-award winner.
Cumulative: Culture is growing whole, which includes in itself the
achievements of past and present to make provision for the future
achievements of mankind.
Gratifying: Culture provides proper opportunities and prescribes
mean for the satisfaction of our needs and desires. These needs
may be biological and social in nature. Our need for food,
shelter, and clothing are on the on hand and our desire for
status, name, fame, money, mates etc. all are fulfilled
according to cultural ways.
Super organic: culture is sometimes called super organic,
Herbert spencer meant that culture is neither organic nor
inorganic in nature but above these two. For example the social
meaning of national flag is not just piece of cloth, it represents a
nation. Similarly, priests, doctors, professors, soldiers and farmers
are not just biological beings. Their social role and status can be
understood only through culture