Chapter 1

Introduction
1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
The term telecommunication means communication at a
distance. The word data refers to information presented
in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data. Data communications are the
exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.

Topics discussed in this section:

Components
Data Representation
Data Flow
Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication
Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
 1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.

Topics discussed in this section:

Distributed Processing
Network Criteria
Physical Structures
Network Models
Categories of Networks
Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork
Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
Figure 1.4 Categories of topology
Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations
Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations
Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations
Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet
Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
 1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the
way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.

Topics discussed in this section:

A Brief History
The Internet Today (ISPs)
Figure 1.13 Hierarchical organization of the Internet
 1-4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

In this section, we define two widely used terms: protocols

and standards. First, we define protocol, which is
synonymous with rule. Then we discuss standards, which
are agreed-upon rules.

Topics discussed in this section:

Protocols
Standards
Standards Organizations
Internet Standards
 Layered Architecture

McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000

Layered Architecture
On completion of the course students will be
able to:
1. Explain the concepts of layering
2. Explain the basic principle of Layered
Architecture of the OSI Model
3. Explain how information flows in layered
architecture
4. Specify the functions of the seven layers of OSI
Model
Outline of the Lecture
 Why Layered Approach?
 What is Layered Approach.
 Basic principles of Layered Approach
 Layers and Interfaces
 Entity and Protocol
 Services and Service Access points
 Types of services
 Service Primitives
 ISO’s OSI reference model
 Functions of different Layers of OSI Model
Basic Concepts
 For successful communication, two systems
must follow a common set of rules for
generating and interpreting messages.
 The set of rules to be followed is very complex.
 Layered Approach provides a viable Approach to
deal with a complex problem.
 The communication function is partitioned into
set of hierarchical set of layers.
Layered Approach
 A complex problem is divided into number of
pieces of manageable and comprehensible size.
 It provides structured modular approach
 Each module can be developed and tested
independently
 Allows easy enhancement and implementation of
the functions of a particular layer without
affecting other layers
Some Basic Principles to be Followed in Layering

 Use optimum number of layers.

 Put similar functions in the same layer.
 Create a layer where there is need for different
levels of abstraction.
 Allow changes of functions to be made within a
layer without affecting other layers.
 Create a layer boundaries for each layer with its
upper and lower layer.
 Choose layer boundaries to minimize information
flow across the boundaries.
Layers and Interfaces
 System Interconnection rules are modularized in
terms of a series of layers of functions, say N
layers.
 Each layer contains a group of related functions.
 A layer below layer n and a layer above layer n
are layer (n-1) and (n+1) respectively
 Between each pair of adjacent layers there is a
interface
Layers and Interfaces
 Interface defines which primitive services the
lower layer offers to the upper layer.
 Layer n provides service to the layer (n+1)
through service access points.
 Each layer adds value to the services provided
by the lower layers.
Entity and Protocol
 Data communication occurs between two
entities in different systems.
 Entity is something which is capable of sending,
processing or receiving information.
 For communication to take place the entities
should follow an agreed upon protocol.
Entity and Protocol
 A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communication.
 It defines- what, how and when.
 syntax: refers to the structure or format of data.
 Semantics : the way the bit patterns are
interpreted and actions taken based on the
interpretation.
 Timing : specifies when data can be sent and
how fast it can be sent
Information flow in a layered architecture

 Layer n on one machine carries on conversation

with layer n on another machines.
 Rules and conventions used in this conversation
are collectively known as layer n protocol.
 List of protocols used by certain system is called
protocol stack.
 Set of layers and protocols is a the network
architecture
Architecture

 What is Architecture?
 Architecture is a set of rules and conventions
used to build something
 It does not specify implementation details
 It is a model- a framework of standard
 A standard based on the model can be
implemented
Services
 Connection- Orientated: Modeled after
telephone system
 Connection less: Modeled after postal system
Services

 Quality of Service
 Confirmed
 Unconfirmed
 Order
 Error
 Delay
Services
Examples :
 Sequence of pages

 Remote login connection-oriented

 Digitized voice

 Electronic junk mail

 Registered mail connection-less

 Data base enquire
Service Primitives
 Connect Request –request a conncetion to be
established.
 Connect Indication-signal the called party.
 Connect Response-used by the callee to
accept/reject calls.
 Connect Confirm- tell the caller whether the call
was accepted.
Service Primitives
 Data Request –request the data to be sent.
 Data Indication-signal the arrival of data
 Disconnect Request-request the connection to
be released.
 Disconnect Indication – signal the peer about
the request
Time Sequence diagram
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body
dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards. An ISO standard that
covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It
was first introduced in the late 1970s.

2.40
 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

2.41
 ISO’s-OSI Architecture

Seven layers of the OSI model

2.42
 Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.43
Physical Layer
 Concerned with transmission of raw bits over a
communication channel
 Number of pins and functions of each pin of

the network connector(mechanical).

 Signal level, data rate (electrical)

 Whether simultaneous transmission in both

directions (simplex, duplex, full duplex)

 Establishing and breaking of connection.

 Deals with physical transmission medium.

Physical Layer
 Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

2.46
Data Link Layer
 This layer transforms the physical layer to a
reliable transmission /reception of structured
stream.
 The following functions are included in this layer
 Framing

 Physical addressing

 Synhronization

 Error control

 Flow control

 Character/ bit oriented

 Media access control

 Figure 2.6 Data link layer

2.48
 Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

2.49
Network Layer
 Responsible for source to destination delivery by
establishing, maintaining and terminating
connections.
 Logical addressing
 Assembly disassembly of messages
 Message priorities
 Internetworking (heterogenious)
 Routing
 Virtual circuits

 Datagram service
 Figure 2.8 Network layer

2.51
 Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

2.52
Transport Layer
Responsible for true end to end communication
 QoS required by session layers

 Port adderssing

 Multiplexes end user addresses on to network

 Segmentation and reassembly

 Connection control

 Monitors QoS

 End-to-end error detection/recovery

 Multiplexing

 Flow control
 Figure 2.10 Transport layer

2.54
 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

2.55
Session Layer
 Establishes termination and connection.
 Performs dialog management.
 Who speakes, when, how long
 Simplex, half-duplex, duplex
 Recovery using check pointing
 Token management
Figure 2.12 Session layer

2.57
 Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

2.58
Presentation Layer

 Syntax and semantics of information.

 Data types
 Character codes
 Data compression/decompression
 Encryption/decryption
 Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

2.60
 Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

2.61
Application Layer
 Concerned wit user application
 Common application service elements (case)-
login, password, checks.
 Specific application service elements
 File transfer, access and management
 Job transfer and manipulation.
 E-mail
 Vediotex, teletex, telefax, etc..
 Message handling
 Document transfer
 Figure 2.14 Application layer

2.63
 Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

2.64
 Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

2.65
 Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

2.66