Basic Agriculture

Basic Agriculture (Lab)

AG R I - 1101 ( T )
AG R I - 1201 ( L )
CR E DI T HOUR : 3 ( 2 - 1)
 Course Learning Objectives
At the end of this course students will be able to understand Basics of agriculture, agronomical
practices and current problems of agriculture in Pakistan

Land measuring units and preparation practices for major crop cultivation and nutrients
application techniques

Weeds and seeds and their impact on crop production

Climate change, cropping seasons, water resources management, irrigation systems of Pakistan,
irrigation methods and field visits
 Course Contents
Theory:
Agriculture, concept, history and importance; Branches and allied sciences in agriculture; Salient
features and problems of Pakistan’s agriculture; Climate, weather and seasons of Pakistan, their
major characteristics and impact on crop production; Land resources and their utilization; Crop
nutrition; Water resources, surface and ground water, canal system; Agro-ecological zones of
Pakistan; Farming systems; Agro-based industries.
Lab:
Land measuring units; Demonstration of hand tools and tillage implements; Identification of
meteorological instruments; Identification of crop plants, weeds and seeds; Identification of
organic and inorganic fertilizers; Calculation of nutrient-cum-fertilizer unit value; Demonstration
of various irrigation methods; Field visits
 Definition
Agriculture is defined as the art, the science and
the business of producing crops and the
livestock for economic purposes.
As an art, it holds knowledge of the way to
perform the operations of the farm in a skillful
manner. The skill is categorized as;
Physical skill: It involves the ability and capacity
to carry out the operation in an efficient way
e.g., handling of farm implements, animals etc.,
sowing of seeds, fertilizer and pesticides
application etc.
Mental skill: The farmer is able to take a
decision based on experience, such as (i) time
and method of ploughing, (ii) selection of crop
and cropping system to suit soil and climate, (iii)
adopting improved farm practices etc.
 As a science : It utilizes all modern technologies developed
on scientific principles such as crop improvement/breeding,
crop production, crop protection, economics etc., to
maximize the yield and profit. For example, new crops and
varieties developed by hybridization, varieties resistant to
pests and diseases, high fertilizer responsive varieties, water
management, herbicides to control weeds, use of bio-
control agents to combat pest and diseases etc.
 As the business : As long as agriculture is the way of life of
the rural population, production is ultimately bound to
consumption. But agriculture as a business aims at
maximum net return through the management of land,
labour, water and capital, employing the knowledge of
various sciences for production of food, feed, fiber and fuel.
In recent years, agriculture is commercialized to run as a
business through mechanization.
 BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE
Agriculture has 3 main spheres viz., Geoponic (Cultivation in earth-soil), Aeroponic (cultivation
in air) and Hydroponic (cultivation in water). Agriculture is the branch of science encompassing
the applied aspects of basic sciences.
Crop production - It deals with the production of various crops, which includes food crops,
fodder crops, fiber crops, sugar, oil seeds, etc. It includes agronomy, soil science, entomology,
pathology, microbiology, etc. The aim is to have better food production and how to control the
diseases.
Horticulture - Branch of agriculture deals with the production of flowers, fruits, vegetables,
ornamental plants, spices, condiments (includes narcotic crops).
Agricultural Engineering - It is an important component for crop production and horticulture
particularly to provide tools and implements. It is aiming to produce modified tools to facilitate
proper animal husbandry and crop production tools, implements and machinery in animal
production. Mechanized forming through the state of the art implement.
 BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE

Forestry - It deals with production of large scale cultivation of perennial trees for
supplying wood, timber, rubber, etc. and also raw materials for industries.
Animal Husbandry - The animals being produced, maintained, etc. Husbandry is
common for both crop and animals. The objective is to get maximum output by feeding,
rearing, etc.
Fishery Science - It is for marine fish and inland fishes including shrimps and prawns.
Home Science - Application and utilization of agricultural produces in a better manner.
 HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE
The history of agriculture may be divided into five broad periods of unequal length, differing
widely in date according to region:
Prehistoric
Historic through the Roman period
Feudal
Scientific
Industrial
Organic farming, may represent yet another period in agricultural history
 HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE
Early farmers were, archaeologists agree, largely of Neolithic culture (latest period of stone age,
between about 8000BC and 5000 BC, characterized by the development of settled agriculture
and use of polished stone tools and weapon)
Sites occupied by such people are located in southwestern Asia in what are now Iran, Iraq, Israel,
Jordan, Syria, and Turkey ; in southeastern Asia, in what is now Thailand; in Africa, along the Nile
River in Egypt; and in Europe, along the Danube River and in Macedonia, Thrace, and Thessaly
(historic regions of southeastern Europe).
Early centers of agriculture have also been identified in the Huang He (Yellow River) area of
China; the Indus River valley of India and Pakistan; and the Tehuacán Valley of Mexico,
northwest of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
The dates of domesticated plants and animals vary with the regions, but most predate the 6th
millennium BC, and the earliest may date from 10,000 BC.
 AGRICULTURE
The word agriculture is derived from the Latin word ager………….its mean soil and cultural means
cultivation. Simply
we can say cultivation of soil
Technical definition
It is the science in art of farming including the work of cultivating the soil, producing the crops
and raising livestock.
It has two main branches
1. Crops
2. Animals
 AGRICULTURE
CROPS Components of agriculture
1. Forestry It has four components
2. Crops 1. Crops 54 %
Animals 2. Livestock 41 %
1. Fisheries 3. Fisheries 4.5 %
2. Livestock 4. Forestry .5 %
 IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE
1. Supply or provide us food and fiber

2. Contributes about 25 % in GDP

3. Agriculture provides raw materials to industries.

4. Agriculture provides 80 % in foreign exchange.

5. 45 % labor force in Pakistan are engaged in agriculture

6. It is backbone of our country.

 Causes of low yield in Pakistan
Maize is 70 % less than America and Canada
Our yield is low because low soil fertility. Our
soil is 60 percent deficient in nutrients.
Low yielding varieties
Poor agronomic practices
Farmers are illiterate
Application of water, harvesting of crops,
attacks of insects, diseases, weeds
Non availability of seed
Non availability of chemicals
 Un availability of inputs
 Low income
 Water logging, salinity
 Small land holdings
 Lack of agro-based industry.
 Lack of storage, transport facilities and next
one is weak govt policy
 Natural disaster, flood or drought
 In case of KPK rains has not occurred in time
 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR INCREASING
YIELD
1. Use of high yielding variety
2. Proper tillage practices
3. Prepare seed bed properly
4. Balance fertilizers
5. Proper irrigation
6. Control of pest and weeds
7. Proper time sowing
8. Time of harvesting.
9. Proper seed rate
10. Proper Crop rotation to maintain the fertility of soil
11. Multiple cropping system
 MODERN AGRICULTURE
Modern agriculture depends heavily on engineering and technology and on the biological and physical sciences.
Irrigation, drainage, conservation—each of which is important in successful farming—are some of the fields
requiring the specialized knowledge of agricultural engineers.
Agricultural chemistry deals with other vital farming concerns, such as the application of fertilizer, insecticides,
and fungicides, soil makeup, analysis of agricultural products, and nutritional needs of farm animals.
Plant breeding and genetics contribute immeasurably to farm productivity. Genetics has also made a science of
livestock breeding.
Hydroponics, a method of soilless gardening in which plants are grown in chemical nutrient solutions, may help
meet the need for greater food production as the world’s population increases.
The packing, processing, and marketing of agricultural products are closely related activities also influenced by
science.
Methods of quick-freezing and dehydration have increased the markets for farm products.
 MODERN AGRICULTURE
Mechanization, the outstanding characteristic of late 19th- and 20th-century agriculture, has eased
much of the backbreaking work (involving enormous physical effort) of the farmer.
More significantly, mechanization has enormously increased farm efficiency (desired result without
using much effort) and productivity (rate of production).
Animals including horses, oxen etc, however, are still used to cultivate fields, harvest crops, and
transport farm products to markets in many parts of the world.
Airplanes and helicopters are employed in agriculture for seeding, spraying operations for insect and
disease control, transporting perishable products, and fighting forest fires.
Increasingly satellites are being used to monitor crop yields.
Radio and television disseminate vital weather reports and other information such as market reports
that concern farmers.
Computers have become an essential tool for farm management.
 AGRONOMY

It is derived from Greek word agro—field and Nomo’s –manage—so development and
management of crop and soil sciences to produce abundant high quality food and fibers in a
protected environment. Students who study agronomy are called agronomist.
 Classification of Crops
Classification is done to generalize similar crop plants as a class for attaining better understanding of
them. Field crops are classified in the following ways.
According to range of cultivation
According to the place of origin
Botanical classification
Commercial classification
Economic/Agricultural/Agrarian classification
Seasonal classification
Classification based on life cycle
According to important uses
………………….
 Range of Cultivation
(a) Garden crop - Grown on a small scale in gardens. e.g., Onion etc.
(b) Plantation crop - Grown on a large scale in estates and perennial in nature. e.g., Tea, Coffee,
Rubber etc.
(c) Field crop - Grown on a vast scale under field condition. They are mostly seasonal such as
rice, wheat, cotton etc.
 Place of Origin

(a) Native - Crops grown within the geographical limits of their origin, for e.g.,
rice, barely, black gram, green gram, mustard, castor, sugarcane and cotton, grown
in Pakistan and India, are native to Indo-Pak.
(b) Exotic or Introduced - Crops introduced from other countries, such as tobacco,
potato, jute, maize, apple, etc.
 Commercial Classification

Based on the plant products which come into the commercial field are grouped as:
(a) Food crops: Rice, wheat, green gram, soybean, groundnut, etc.
(b) Food crops/Forage crops: All fodders, oats, sorghum, maize, Lucerne etc.
(c) Industrial/Commercial crops: Cotton, sugarcane, sugar beet, tobacco etc.
(d) Food adjuvants: Turmeric, garlic, cumin, etc.
 Economic/Agrarian/Agricultural
Classification
This classification is based on use of crop plants and their products. This is an
important classification as for as agronomy is concerned (Agronomic classification).
(a) Cereals - They are cultivated grasses grown for their edible grains. Larger grains
used as staple food are cereals–rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats etc.
The word cereal was derived from the word ceres, which denotes a goddess who was
believed as the giver of grains by Romans.
Rice, Wheat
Bread wheat- Triticum aesticum, Triticum vulgare
Macaroni wheat- T. durum
Maize, Barley and Oats
 Cont.….

(b) Millets - Small grained cereals, which form the staple food in drier regions of the
developing countries, are called millets.
(c) Oil seeds - Crops that yield seeds rich in fatty acids, are used to extract vegetable
oils. e.g., groundnut or peanut, sesamum or gingelly, sunflower, castor, linseed or
flax, safflower, mustard and cotton.
(d) Pulses- Seeds of leguminous plants used as food. They produce dal rich in
protein. e.g., gram, soybean, peas.
 Cont.….
(e) Feed/Forage - It refers to vegetative matter, fresh or preserved, utilized as feed for animals. It
includes silage and fodder. e.g., bajra grass, fodder-sorghum, fodder-maize, lucerne, etc.
(f) Fibre crops- Plants grown for their fibre yield. E.g. cotton etc.
(g) Sugar and starch crops - Crops grown for production of sugar and starch. e.g., sugarcane, sugar
beet, potato, sweet potato.
(h) Spices and condiments ‫ مساال‬- Crop plants or their products used to season, flavour, taste, and add
colour to the fresh or preserved food. e.g., ginger, garlic, cumin, turmeric, chillies, onion, coriander.
(i) Drug crops/medicinal plants - Crops used for preparation of medicines. e.g., tobacco, mint etc.
(j) Narcotics- Plants/products used for stimulating ‫متحرک‬, numbing ‫ سن‬, drowsing‫ غنودگی‬or
relishing ‫ لذت‬effects. e.g., tobacco, ganja (Charas), opium poppy ‫افیون‬.
(k) Beverages - Products of crops used for preparation of mild, agreeable and stimulating drinking.
e.g., tea, coffee, cocoa.
Sweet Potato: (‫)شکر قندی‬ Sugar Beet: (‫) چقندر‬
 Seasonal Classification
Crops are grouped under the seasons in which their major field duration falls.
(a) Kharif crops - Crops grown during June–July to September–October, which require a
warm wet weather during their major period of growth and shorter day length for
flowering. e.g., rice, maize and groundnut.
(b) Rabi crops - Crops grown during October–November to January–February, require cold
dry weather for their major growth period and longer day length for flowering. e.g.,
wheat, mustard, barley, oats, potato, berseem, cabbage and cauliflower.
(c) Zaid or summer crops - Crops grown during February–March to May–June which
requires warm dry weather for growth and longer day–length for flowering. e.g., black
gram, green gram, sesame etc.
 Classification Based on the Life Cycle of a
Plant

(a) Annual crops- Crop plants that complete life cycle within a season or year. They
produce seed and die within the season. e.g., wheat, rice, maize, mustard.
(b) Biennial crops- Plants that have life span of two consecutive seasons or years. First
year/Season these plants have purely vegetative growth usually confined to rosette of
leaves. The tap root is often fleshy and serves as a food storage organ. During the second
year/season they produce flower stocks from the crown and after producing seeds the
plants die. e.g., sugar beet, beet root, cabbage, radish, carrot, etc.
(c) Perennial crops- They live for three or more years. They may be seed bearing or non-
seed bearing. e.g., sugarcane. In general perennial crops occupy land for more than 30
months.
 According to suitability of topo-sequence

Crops grown on upland- Levelled elevated land with drain all around or unbunded
levelled land with drains or drops. Crops that cannot tolerant water stagnation come
under this group. e.g., red gram, groundnut, maize, sorghum, cotton, sesamum etc.
Crops that require sufficient soil moisture but cannot tolerate water stagnation. e.g.,
Potato, sugarcane, upland rice, ragi, wheat, black gram, Bengal gram.

Crops grown on lowland- These lands are provided with dykes or bunds all around to
stagnate water. Crops that require abundant supply of water and can withstand
prolonged water logged conditions. e.g., rice, Para grass and jute.
 According to Source of Water

Irrigated crops - The crop cultivation primarily depends upon the irrigation water for a
part/ entire growth period of the crop. All crops irrespective seasons are possible to be
raised in this category.

Rainfed crops - The crop cultivation entirely depends upon the rainfall received. Crop
varieties depend upon the season and the rainfall pattern.
 According to Moisture Availability the Soil

Wet lands - The soil moisture is allowed to occupy both macro and microspores.
Anaerobic field condition prevails here. Crops suitable are those crops, which tolerate
water stagnation. e.g., green manures like grasses etc.

Dry lands - The soil moisture is allowed only on to microspores. Macro pores are filled
with air. Magnitude of soil moisture varies according to the crop. Crops like maize,
highly sensitive to excess moisture and drought, crops tolerant to drought and
temporary stagnation, sorghum are cultivated in this type of field condition.
 According to the suitability of the textural groups
of Soils

Crops suitable to sandy to sandy loam (light) soils - Sorghum, bajra, green gram,
sunflower, potato, onion, carrot etc.
Crops suitable to silty loam (medium) soils - Jute, sugarcane, maize, cotton, mustard,
tobacco etc.
Crop suitable to clay loam (heavy) soils - Rice, wheat, barley, linseed, lentil, para grass
etc.
 According to Tolerance to Problem Soils

Tolerant to acidic soils - Wet rice, potato, mustard.

Tolerant to saline soils - Chillies, wheat, sorghum, bajra, cluster beans, barley etc.
Tolerant to alkali/sodic soils - Barley, cotton, berseem, sunflower, maize, etc.
Tolerant to waterlogged soils - Wet rice, para grass etc.
Crops tolerant to soil erosion - Marvel grass, groundnut, black gram.
 According to Tillage Requirement

Arable crops - Require preparatory tillage. e.g., Potato, tobacco, rice, maize.

Non-arable crops - May not require preparatory cultivation/tillage. e.g., para

grass.
 According to the Depth of Root System

Shallow rooted crops- Rice, potato, and onion.

Moderately deep rooted- Wheat, groundnut and tobacco.
Deep rooted- Maize, cotton, and sorghum.
Very deep rooted- Sugarcane, lucerne, and red gram.
 According to the tolerance to hazardous weather
condition

Frost tolerant - Sugar beet, beet root.

Cold tolerant - Potato, cabbage, and mustard.
Drought tolerant - Bajra, jowar, barley.
 According to Method of Sowing/Planting

Direct seeded crop - Where the seeds are sown directly either dry or sprouted.
upland rice, wheat, jowar, bajra, groundnut etc.
Planted crops - Where plant parts are planted directly. e.g., sugarcane, potato,
sweet potato.
Transplanted crops - Where seedlings are raised in the nursery, pulled out and
planted in the field: rice, tobacco.
 According to length of field duration of
crops

Very short duration crops (upto 75 days): pulses

Short duration crops (75–100 days): sunflower, cauliflower, upland rice
Medium duration crops (100–125 days ): wheat, jowar, bajra, groundnut, sesame,
jute
Long duration crops (125–150 days): mustard, tobacco, cotton
Very long duration crops: above 150 days: sugarcane, red gram.
 According to inter-tillage requirement
specially earthing up

Intertilled crops- Potato, sweet potato, groundnut, maize, sugarcane, and

turmeric.
Non-intertilled crops- Fodder sorghum, para grass etc.
According to the Method of Harvesting
Reaping: rice, wheat
Uprooting by pulling: black gram, lentil, rapeseed
Uprooting by digging: potato, sweet potato, groundnut, carrot etc.
Picking: cotton, vegetables, chillies
Priming: tobacco
Cutting: berseem
Grazing: para grass
 Based on Climatic Condition

Tropical crop: coconut, sugarcane

Sub-tropical crop: rice, cotton
Temperate crop: wheat, barley
Polar crop: all pines, pasture grasses
 According to Important Uses
Though plants are useful in many ways only certain uses are given below.
(a) Catch crops are those crops cultivated to catch the forth coming season. It replaces
the main crop that has failed due to biotic or climatic or management hazards. Generally,
they are of very short duration, quick growing, harvestable or usable at any time of their
field duration and adaptable to the season, soil and management practices. They provide
feed, check weed growth, conserve soil, utilized added fertilizer and moisture. e.g., green
gram, black gram, onion, coriander and bajra.
(b) Restorative crops are those crops, which provide a good yield along with enrichment
or restoration of soil fertility or amelioration of the soils. They fix atmospheric nitrogen in
root nodules, shed their leaves during ripening and thus restore soil conditions. e.g.,
legumes.
(c) Exhaustive crops are those crop plants, which on growing leave the field exhausted
because of a more aggressive nature. e.g., linseed, sunflower etc.
 Continue…

(d) Residual crops are those crop plants which are sown a few days or weeks before the harvest of the standing
mature crops to utilize the residual moisture, without preparatory tillage. The standing crop and the later sown
crop become simultaneous for a short period. For e.g., rice fallow pulses black gram.
(e) Cover crops are those crop plants, which are able to protect the soil surface from erosion (wind, water or
both) through their ground covering foliage and or root mats. e.g., groundnut, black gram, marvel grass, sweet
potato.
(f) Nurse crops: A companion crop, which nourishes the main crop by way of nitrogen fixation and or adding the
organic matter into the soil. e.g., cowpea intercropped with cereals.
(g) Guard/barrier crops are those crop plants, which help to protect another crop from trespassing or restrict the
speed of wind and thus prevent crop damage. Main crop in the centre surrounded by hardy or thorny crop. e.g.,
Sorghum around cotton; safflower around gram.
 Assignment

Major Crops of Pakistan

◦ Area covered
◦ Average Yield
◦ Major zones under each crop

◦ Write the Names of the crops in Urdu for better understanding