• If we look closely at the world around us,

infinite chemical reactions are occurring

at every second.

• Thus, it is right to say- Chemistry forms

a large part of our daily life.

• Chemistry and chemical reactions are

visible in the world around us.

• The element CARBON forms the basic

unit of organic, inorganic, and organo-
metallic compounds.

• Infinite chemical processes are taking

place in each cell of our body round the
clock even when we are asleep.

• All our daily activities like drinking water,

taking a shower, cooking food, cleaning
car, laughing or crying are guided by
different chemical processes.
• In 1662, Robert Boyle discovered the volume and
pressure of gases are inversely proportionate at
a constant temperature. Put simply, when
volume rises, pressure drops, and vice versa.
• The mathematic equation is given as:
PV = k
• Where (P) represents pressure, (V) represents
volume, and (k) is a constant.
• This is called "Boyle's law," and is included as a
special case in the more general ideal gas law.
• Boyle's law is important as tells us about the
behavior of gases.
• It explains, with certainty, that the pressure and
volume of gas are inversely proportional to one
another. So, if you push on gas, its volume
becomes smaller and the pressure becomes
higher.
• We experience examples of
“Boyle’s Law” law on a regular
basis. The first example is a rather
common one, filling a tyre with air.
• Generally, you fill a tyre with
somewhere between 30 to 35 PSI
(pounds per square inch) of
compressed air. This is a
measurement of pressure. As you
put more and more air into the
tyre, you are forcing all the gas
molecules to get packed together,
reducing their volume and
increasing the pressure pushing
on the walls of the tyre.
Considering the air temperature
remains the same
• This is a real life example of this
law.
• While there are different types of aerosol
cans, some small some big, they all rely
on the same basic principle: Boyle's law.
• Before we spray a can of paint, we are
supposed to shake it up for a while as a
ball bearing rattles around inside. There
are two substances inside the can: one is
the product (paint for example), and the
other is a gas that can be pressurized so
it retains a liquid state, even when it is
heated past its boiling point.
• This liquefied gas has a boiling point far
below room temperature. Because the
can is sealed, the gas is prevented from
boiling and turning into a gas. That is,
until you push down the nozzle.
• The moment the nozzle of a spray paint
can goes down, the seal is broken and
the propellant instantly boils, expands
into a gas, and pushes down on the
paint. Under the high pressure, the paint
is forced out of the nozzle as it attempts
to reach an area with lower pressure.
• When we open a bottle of soda, we slowly turn
the cap to allow the air to escape before
removing the lid. Twisting it open too fast
causes it to fizz up and spill all over. This
happens because the liquid is pumped full of
CO2 , causing it to bubble up as the CO2 makes
its escape. But some of it is in the space
(sometimes referred to as "head space") that
makes up the difference between the volume of
the soft drink and the volume of the container.
• When a soda bottle is filled, it is also
pressurized. Much like the aerosol can
mentioned earlier, when you slowly open the
cap, the gas is able to increase its volume and
the pressure decreases.
• Normally you can let the gas out of a can or
bottle release cleanly, but if the bottle is shaken
up and the gas is mixed into the liquid, then
you may have a mess on your hands. This is
because the gas trying to escape is mixed into
the fluid, so, when it does escape, it brings the
foamy fluid out with it. Pressure in the bottle
• Scuba diver knows when they are ascending from deep
waters, a slow ascension is critical.
• Our bodies are built for and accustomed to living in the
normal pressure of our lower atmosphere. As a diver goes
deeper underwater, that pressure begins to increase.
• Water being heavye increasing pressure causing a
decrease in volume, nitrogen gasses begin to be absorbed
by the diver's blood.
When the diver begins his ascent and the pressure is
lessened, these gas molecules begin to expand back to their
normal volume.
With a slow ascent, or through the use of a depressurization
chamber, those gasses can work their way back out of the
bloodstream slowly and normally. But if the diver ascends
too quickly, the blood in their veins becomes a foamy mess.
The same thing that happens to a foamy soda is what
happens to a diver's bloodstream during the bends. On top
of that, any built up nitrogen between the diver's joints will
also expand, causing the diver to bend over (hence its name)
in severe pain. In the worst cases, this sudden
depressurization of the body can kill a person instantly.
• When popping a balloon, we
are attempting to reduce the
amount of air trapped inside
of the container, thus, we
increase the pressure on the
system.
• We squeeze the balloon,
increasing the pressure,
which decreases the volume.
The system will become too
disproportional, too stressed,
and must pop to equalize the
system.
• The same happens when we
overfill a balloon, putting too
much pressure proportional
to the volume the container
can handle.
• A fire extinguisher consists of a long cylinder with
an operating lever at the top. Inside the cylinder is a
tube of CO 2 surrounded by a quantity of water,
which creates pressure around the CO 2 tube.
A siphon tube runs vertically along the length of the
extinguisher, with one opening near the bottom of
the water. The other end opens in a chamber
containing a spring mechanism attached to a
release valve in the CO 2 tube.
• The water and the CO 2 do not fill the entire cylinder:
as with the soda can, there is "head space," an area
filled with air. When the operating lever is
depressed, it activates the spring mechanism,
which pierces the release valve at the top of the
CO 2 tube. When the valve opens, the CO 2 spills out
in the "head space," exerting pressure on the water.
This high-pressure mixture of water and carbon
dioxide goes rushing out of the siphon tube, which
was opened when the release valve was depressed.
All of this happens, of course, in a fraction of a
second—plenty of time to put out the fire.
 Charle’s law states that when keeping the pressure
constant, the volume of a gas varies directly with the
temperature. Charle’s law equation can be represented as:
• V∝T
• where, V represents the volume of the gas and T represents
temperature.

• The temperatures are conventionally measured in Kelvin, the

SI unit of temperature.

• It was the June of 1783 when Joseph and Etienne

Montgolfier inflated a balloon 30 feet in diameter with hot
air and set it afloat in the air. The giant curvilineared
envelope traveled one and a half miles in the air before
reacquainting itself with grass and dirt. The news didn’t take
long to spread throughout France.

• Upon hearing of this flight, Jacques Charles conducted

a simple experiment in which 5 balloons were filled with a
different gas, but at the same pressure and volume. They
were then subjected to an immensely hot temperature of 80
degrees Celsius. He found that they all expanded uniformly.

This formulated the Charle’s Law.

• The law that explains how hot
air balloons work is
the Charles's Law.
• Explanation: if gas expands
when it is heated, a given
weight of hot air occupies a
larger volume then the same
weight of cold air. Hot air is less
dense than cold air. Once the
air in the balloon is hot enough,
the net weight of the balloon
plus the hot air is less than the
volume of the cold air, and the
balloon starts to rise. This is the
Charles's Law because he
stated that once the
• Dalton's law says that a gas mixture's total
pressure equals the sum of all gases
contained in the mixture, as shown in the
following equation:
• Total Pressure = Pressure 1 + Pressure 2
• This example assumes that only two gases
exist in the mixture. One consequence of
this law is that oxygen accounts for 21
percent of the atmosphere's total pressure
because it makes up 21 percent of the
atmosphere. People who ascend to high
altitudes experience Dalton's law when they
try to breathe. As they climb higher,
oxygen's partial pressure decreases as total
atmospheric pressure decreases in
accordance with Dalton's law. Oxygen has a
difficult time making it into the bloodstream
when the gas's partial pressure decreases.
Hypoxia, a serious medical problem
potentially resulting in death, can occur
when this happens.
• One consequence of this law is
that oxygen accounts for 21
percent of the atmosphere's
total pressure because it makes
up 21 percent of the
atmosphere. People who
ascend to high altitudes
experience Dalton's law when
they try to breathe. As they
climb higher, oxygen's partial
pressure decreases as total
atmospheric pressure
decreases in accordance with
Dalton's law. Oxygen has a
difficult time making it into the
bloodstream when the gas's
partial pressure decreases.
Hypoxia, a serious medical
problem potentially resulting in
• Amadeo Avogadro made
interesting proposals in 1811 that
now formulate Avogadro's law. It
states that one gas contains the
same number of molecules as
another gas of equal volume at
the same temperature and
pressure. This means that when
you double or triple a gas's
molecules, the volume doubles or
triples if pressure and
temperature remain constant.
Masses of the gasses will not be
the same since they have
different molecular weights.
• This law holds that
an air balloon and
an identical balloon
containing helium
don't weigh the
same because air
molecules –
consisting primarily
of nitrogen and
oxygen – have more
mass than helium
molecules.
• The law of conservation of
energy is a law of science that
states that energy can neither
be created nor destroyed, but
only changed from one form
into another or transferred
from one object to another.
• This law is taught in physical
science and physics classes in
middle schools and high
schools, and is used in those
classes as well as in chemistry
classes.
 EVERYDAY EXAMPLES: LAW
OF CONSERVATION OF
• Water can produce
ENERGY
electricity. Water falls
from the sky, converting
potential energy to kinetic
energy. This energy is
then used to rotate the
turbine of a generator to
produce electricity. In this
process, the potential
energy of water in a dam
can be turned into kinetic
energy which can then
become electric energy.
• Potential energy of oil or
gas is changed into
energy to heat a building.
 EVERYDAY EXAMPLES: LAW
OF CONSERVATION OF
•
ENERGY
When playing pool, the cue ball is shot at a
stationary 8 ball. The cue ball has energy.
When the cue ball hits the 8 ball, the energy
transfers from the cue ball to the 8 ball,
sending the 8 ball into motion. The cue ball
loses energy because the energy it had has
been transferred to the 8 ball, so the cue
ball slows down.
• When kicking a football that is sitting on the
ground, energy is transferred from the
kicker's body to the ball, setting it in motion.
• When playing the lawn game bocce ball, a
small ball is thrown with the intention of
hitting larger balls and causing them to
move. When a larger ball moves because it
was hit by the small ball, energy is
transferred from the small ball to the larger
one.
• A fly ball hits a window in a house,
shattering the glass. The energy from the
ball was transferred to the glass, making it
shatter into pieces and fly in various
directions.
 EVERYDAY EXAMPLES: LAW
OF CONSERVATION OF
ENERGY
• When a moving car hits a
parked car and causes the
parked car to move, energy
is transferred from the
moving car to the parked
car.
• When the car hit the curb it
broke apart. Energy from the
moving car was transferred
to the non-moving cement,
causing it to move.
• When the car hit the road
sign, the sign fell over.
Energy was transferred from
the moving car to the
stationary sign, causing the
sign to move. No energy was
lost in the transfer.
 EVERYDAY EXAMPLES: LAW
OF CONSERVATION OF
•
ENERGY
When you push a book across the
table, the energy from your moving
arm is transferred from your body to
the book, causing the book to move.
• Two football players collided on the
field, and both went flying backwards.
Energy was transferred from each
player to the other, sending them in
the opposite direction from which they
had been running.
• Fingers hitting piano keys transfer
energy from the player's hand to the
keys.
• The dog ran in into the Christmas tree
and knocked it over. Energy was
transferred from the moving dog to
the stationary tree, causing the tree to
move.
• Matter can be neither created
nor destroyed, though it can be
rearranged. Mass remains
constant in an ordinary chemical
change. This principle is also
known as conservation of
matter.
• The law of conservation of
mass states that in a closed
system, the mass of the system
cannot change over time. We can
remember the law of
conservation of mass with this
simple statement:
• The mass of the reactants must
equal the mass of the products.
• In Fire and Burning, If you set a piece of
paper on fire it appears to turn into maybe a
small pile of ash, nowhere near the mass of
the paper before. While you can't see the
rest it is certainly there. The white powder
left after burning is everything in the paper
that was not consumed in the combustion
reaction. This is a reaction that takes
hydrocarbons and oxygen to create carbon
dioxide and water vapor. When you burn
the paper, almost all of the molecules are
torn apart and turned to gas.
• It may seem as though burning destroys
matter, but the same amount, or mass, of
matter still exists after a campfire as before.
When wood burns, it combines with oxygen
and changes not only to ashes but also to
carbon dioxide and water vapor. The gases
float off into the air, leaving behind just the
ashes. Suppose you had measured the
mass of the wood before it burned and the
mass of the ashes after it burned. Also
suppose you had been able to measure the
oxygen used by the fire and the gases
produced by the fire. What would you find?
The total mass of matter after the fire would
be the same as the total mass of matter
before the fire.
 Graham's law is a gas law which
relates the rate of diffusion or
effusion of a gas to its molar mass.
Diffusion is the process of slowly
mixing two gases together. Effusion
is the process that occurs when a gas
is permitted to escape its container
through a small opening.
• Graham's law states that the rate at
which a gas will effuse or diffuse is
inversely proportional to the square
root of the molar masses of the gas.
This means light gasses
effuse/diffuse quickly and heavier
gases effuse/diffuse slowly.
• This example problem uses Graham's
law to find how much faster one
gas effuses than another.
• The total membrane surface area in the lungs
(alveoli ) may be on the order of 100 square meters
and have a thickness of less than a millionth of a
meter, so it is a very effective gas exchange
interface. The relative rate of oxygen and carbon
dioxide exchange across these thin membranes
depends upon diffusion and the solubility of the
gases in the fluid membrane. This is described by
Fick's law considering the Graham's law.

• The process of respiration involves the lowering of

the diaphragm to increase the volume of the thoracic
cavity, which by the ideal gas law is seen to lower its
pressure. A model of lung action can be made with a
bell jar, balloons, and an elastic membrane. The
thoracic cavity normally has a negative gauge
pressure to keep the lungs inflated, and the
diaphragm action must lower it more to accomplish
inhalation. The inhalation process must accomplish
the inflation of the alveoli of the lungs, which itself is
a remarkable process. The pressure achieved by the
diaphragm action is only about -4 mmHg compared
to a pressure inside the alveoli of about -3 mmHg, so
inhalation must be accomplished with a pressure
differential of only about 1 mmHg. The remarkable
efficiency of oxygen transport across the lung
membranes is characterized in Fick's Law.
REAL-WORLD APPLICATIONS
OF GRAHAM’S LAW
2.MAKING OF
AMMONIUM CHLORIDE
• Hydrogen chloride and
ammonia diffuse from
opposite ends of a long tube.
They meet and react to
produce ammonium chloride,
a white solid powder. The
distances of the white powder
from either end of the tube are
measured, and the ratio
compared with a predicted
ratio from Graham's Law. The
experiment is not expected to
give close quantitative
agreement between calculated
and observed values, but the
ammonia does diffuse faster
than the HCl, as expected.
• Faraday’s laws are the two laws given by Michael
Faraday in 1834 which describes and defines the
quantitative relationship between electricity and
ions deposited at electrodes.
• Faraday’s first law of electrolysis states that:
• The mass of ions or substances liberated at an
electrode during electrolysis is directly
proportional to the quantity of electricity
transferred to the electrode.
• Here,
• If, Mass of Ions liberated = m
Quantity of electricity = The total charge used for
electrolysis = Q = I * t
I = The current through the electrodes. & t = the
time for which the process of electrolysis is run.
• Then According to the Faraday’s first law of
electrolysis:
• or, Where, Z is the constant.So, When I = 1 and
t=1 m=Z
• The “Z” is a constant and is known as the
ElectroChemical Equivalent (ECE) of the substance.
• The ElectroChemical Equivalent of a substance is
the mass of the ions liberated by the passage of
one ampere of current through electrodes for one
second.
 Electrolysis being one of the most important
process in electro-chemistry has a lot of
applications some of which are listed below:
• Electrometallurgy:
• Electrometallurgy is the field which is related to
the processing of metals with the help of
electrolysis. The types of electrometallurgy are:
• Electrowinning: Electrowinning is a process of
extracting of metals from their ores. For
example aluminium can be extracted from
bauxite by using electrolysis.
• Electrorefining: It is the process of purifying the
metals from their impure forms. For example
highly pure copper is extracted from blister
copper using electrolysis.
• Electroplating: Electroplating is the process of
deposition of a layer of a metal around another
metal. For example metals like iron which are
easily corroded by environment and air are
electroplated with nickel or chromium with the
help of electrolysis.
• Electroforming: Electroforming is the process
of manufacturing of thin sheets of metals using
electroplating or electrolysis.
• Production of Chemicals:
• Various chemicals are produced with the help of
electrolysis. For example chemicals like caustic
soda , chlorine , potassium permagnate are
• Henry’s law states that
the amount of a gas
that dissolves in a
liquid is directly
proportional to the
partial pressure of that
gas.
• A P
• Here,amount of gas=A
• Partial pressure=P
• The laws of thermodynamics dictate
energy behavior, for example, how and
why heat, which is a form of energy,
transfers between different objects.
The first law of thermodynamics is the
law of conservation of energy and
matter. In essence, energy can neither
be created nor destroyed; it can
however be transformed from one
form to another. The second law states
that isolated systems gravitate towards
thermodynamic equilibrium, also
known as a state of maximum entropy,
or disorder; it also states that heat
energy will flow from an area of low
temperature to an area of high
temperature. These laws are observed
regularly every day.
• Every day, ice needs to be maintained at
a temperature below the freezing point of
water to remain solid. On hot summer
days, however, people often take out a
tray of ice to cool beverages. In the
process, they witness the first and
second laws of thermodynamics. For
example, someone might put an ice cube
into a glass of warm lemonade and then
forget to drink the beverage. An hour or
two later, they will notice that the ice has
melted but the temperature of the
lemonade has cooled. This is because
the total amount of heat in the system
has remained the same, but has just
gravitated towards equilibrium, where
both the former ice cube (now water) and
the lemonade are the same temperature.
This is, of course, not a completely
closed system. The lemonade will
eventually become warm again, as heat
from the environment is transferred to
the glass and its contents.
• The human body obeys the laws of
thermodynamics. Consider the
experience of being in a small
crowded room with lots of other
people. In all likelihood, you'll start to
feel very warm and will start sweating.
This is the process your body uses to
cool itself off. Heat from your body is
transferred to the sweat. As the sweat
absorbs more and more heat, it
evaporates from your body, becoming
more disordered and transferring heat
to the air, which heats up the air
temperature of the room. Many
sweating people in a crowded room,
"closed system," will quickly heat
things up. This is both the first and
second laws of thermodynamics in
action: No heat is lost; it is merely
transferred, and approaches
equilibrium with maximum entropy
• Consider a situation where a person
takes a very long bath. Immediately
during and after filling up the bathtub,
the water is very hot -- as high as 120
degrees Fahrenheit. The person will
then turn off the water and submerge
his body into it. Initially, the water
feels comfortably warm, because the
water's temperature is higher than the
person's body temperature. After
some time, however, some heat from
the water will have transferred to the
individual, and the two temperatures
will meet. After a bit more time has
passed, because this is not a closed
system, the bath water will cool as
heat is lost to the atmosphere. The
person will cool as well, but not as
much, since his internal homeostatic
mechanisms help keep his
temperature adequately elevated.
 REAL-WORLD APPLICATIONS
OF THERMODYNAMIC LAWS

• We rely on electricity to turn on our

lights. Electricity is a form of energy; it
is, however, a secondary source. A
primary source of energy must be
converted into electricity before we
can flip on the lights. For example,
water energy can be harnessed by
building a dam to hold back the water
of a large lake. If we slowly release
water through a small opening in the
dam, we can use the driving pressure
of the water to turn a turbine. The
work of the turbine can be used to
generate electricity with the help of a
generator. The electricity is sent to our
homes via power lines. The electricity
was not created out of nothing; it is
the result of transforming water
energy from the lake into another
energy form.
•