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Chapter I
Electromagnetic Radiation and Antenna
Fundamentals
c 3 108m/s
l = /2: wave will complete one cycle from A to B and back to A
= distance a wave travels during 1 cycle
f = c/= c/2l P.Jothilakshmi, AP/EC-SVCE
VMRF/AVIT/ECE /III Year/V sem/ AWP/Unit -1/S.Vithyalakshmi
EM waves in free
space
• v2 = 1/(oµo) so, v = 3 x 108 m/s
– o = 8.855 x 10-12 Farads/m
– µo = 1.2566 x 10-6 Henrys/m
EM waves in free space
propagate freely without
attenuation
What is a plane wave?
– Example is a wave propagating
along the x-direction
– Fields are constant in y and z
directions, but vary with time and
space along the x-direction
– Most propagating radio (EM)
waves can be thought of a plane
waves on the scale of the
receiving antenna P.Jothilakshmi, AP/EC-SVCE
VMRF/AVIT/ECE /III Year/V sem/ AWP/Unit -1/S.Vithyalakshmi
Maxwell’s Equations
Relate Electric and Magnetic fields generated by charge
and current distributions.
E = electric field
D = electric displacement Gauss’ Law
H = magnetic field
Gauss’ law for magnetism
B = magnetic flux density
= charge density
Faraday’s Law
j = current density
0 (permeability of free space) = 4 10-7
0 (permittivity of free space) = 8.854 10-12 c
Ampère’s Law
(speed of light) = 2.99792458 108 m/s
In vacuum , ,
D 0 E B 0 H 0 c 02 1
VMRF/AVIT/ECE /III Year/V sem/ AWP/Unit -1/S.Vithyalakshmi
Changing Electric Fields Produce
Magnetic Fields; Maxwell’s Equations
Maxwell ’ s equations are the basic equations of
electromagnetism. They involve calculus; here is a
summary:
•Gauss’s law relates electric field to charge
•A law stating there are no magnetic “charges”
•A changing electric field produces a magnetic field
•A magnetic field is produced by an electric current,
and also by a changing electric field
+++ No radiation
+++ Radiation
Zr
i x Ae jβ x Be jβ x
Without loss
O.C.
iy i e j β y i e jβ y 2 ji s i n y
r r r
v
iy, t r si n ycos t
Zc
C.O.
ix i e j β y i e jβ y 2 ji s i n y
r r r
v
iy, t r si n ycos t
Zc
In practice, when the wires are relatively close, the currents are out of
phase, the total radiated field is close to zero.
The classical approximation considers that if the arms of the line are
moved away, the current distribution remains the same.
Problem: in practice,
there is mismatch.
Then we seek a
resonant antenna
having an input
impedance matched
VMRF/AVIT/ECE /III Year/V sem/ AWP/Unit -1/S.Vithyalakshmi to a progressive wave
line.
Radiation sources
Currents and charges present in this medium are
called primary sources:
Surface current density Ip (A/m²)
Volume charge density Q p
(Cb/m3)
H (A/m)
Induction Phenomena
n E 1 0 E1 H1
1, 1, 1
n H1 I S
n.E 1 Q S
The electric field is always
perpendicular to the conductor.
n.H 1 0
The magnetic field is always
tangent to the conductor.
z
P
Vector A is defined in a gradient
approximate, then there is a
r
function V satisfying:
o y
A(r, t)
E(r, t) V(r, t)
t
x
V
2
t 2
A 2
A
2
I
t 2
B0
B A (T )
A 0
A - vector magnetic potential (Wb/m)
( A) 2 A J0
A 0 A 0 J 2
V
2 Poisson’s Equation
in electrostatics
1 dv
V V R
2
0 4 0 v
0 J
A 0J A
2
dv
4 vR
Guided wave
90o
beam
180o 0o width
null
2P7.Jo0thoilakshmi,AP/EC-SVCE
VMRF/AVIT/ECE /III Year/V sem/ AWP/Unit -1/S.Vithyalakshmi
Radiation Pattern
Lobes
P.Jothilakshmi, AP/EC-SVCE
VMRF/AVIT/ECE /III Year/V sem/ AWP/Unit -1/S.Vithyalakshmi
Exampl
e
P.Jothilakshmi, AP/EC-SVCE
VMRF/AVIT/ECE /III Year/V sem/ AWP/Unit -1/S.Vithyalakshmi
Power pattern vs. Field
pattern
The power pattern is the measured (calculated) and plotted
received power: |P( θ , ϕ )| at a constant (large) distance from the
antenna
The amplitude field pattern is the measured (calculated) and
plotted electric (magnetic) field intensity, |E(θ, ϕ)| or |H(θ, ϕ)| at
a constant (large) distance from the antenna
AR = Axial Ratio
VMRF/AVIT/ECE /III Year/V sem/ AWP/Unit -1/S.Vithyalakshmi
Elliptical
Polarization
LHC
RHC
Ex = cos (wt)
Ex = cos (wt)
Ey = sin (wt)
Ey = -cos (wt+pi/4)
LHC
(Poincaré sphere)
UPPER HEMISPHERE:
ELLIPTIC POLARIZATION
LEFT_HANDED SENSE LATTITUDE:
REPRESENTS
AXIAL RATIO
EQUATOR:
LINEAR POLARIZATION
Animations
D
R1 Radiating near-field
(Fresnel) region
R2 D2
R2 2
A radian is defined with the aid of Figure a). It is the angle subtended
by an arc along the perimeter of the circle with length equal to the
radius.
A steradian may be defined using Figure (b). Here, one steradian (sr)
is subtended by an area r2 at the surface of a sphere of radius r.
4
G 2 Ae
Ae
ap
Ap
F/B Front-to-back ratio
A ratio comparing the signal strength in the desired direction of transmission or
reception to the signal strength in the opposite direction. One use of this ratio is to
describe the antenna's ability to discriminate between the signal coming from the
front and the interfering signals coming from the rear when the antenna is used for
reception.
F / B Main Lobe(dB) Back Lobe(dB)
Radiation intensity in a given direction is the power per unit solid angle
radiated in this direction by the antenna
surface area r 2
arc length r
1.0 rad
1.0 sr
ds
d 2 sin() dd
r
VMRF/AVIT/ECE /III Year/V sem/ AWP/Unit -1/S.Vithyalakshmi
Radiation
Intensity
Radiation intensity in a given direction is the power per unit solid angle
radiated in this direction by the antenna.
tot
dP
U rad W Prad
tot
U d
d sr
4
dPradtot W
Prad Prad
tot
Pradds
ds m2
U r P 2
rad
1~ ~ 1 ~ 1
P (,r, ) E H
2
E E E * 2 2
2 2
rad
2
r 2
U(,) E E 2 2
2
U(,)
U (,)
U max
4
ave rad rad
U
D D 4
max
1 (directiviyt)
o
max
P rad
tot
D = 4π Φ(θ,φ)max.
W
Assuming the same input power to both Directive gain & Power
gain is related as:
Gp = η Gd
η = Efficiency factor lies between 1 & 0
If η = 1,then Gp = Gd
1
G (,) D (,) D (,)
t r c d
P.Jothilakshmi, AP/EC-SVCE t
2
Ae G(), 2
[m ]
4
Aperture efficiency: a = Ae / A
A: physical area of antenna’s aperture, square meters
et
p r c d p r cd
polarization mismatches
p
reflection efficiency
r
dielectric losses
d
1 r
2
R R
input generator
R input
R generator
R input
antenna input impedance()
R output
generator output impedance()
Input resistance (red line) and reactance (green line) of a dipole antenna as a
function of antenna length
2P total 2 U (,) d
R rad
rad
2 4
2
I o
I o
l I 8
2 2
2
lI
P U (,)d
tot
o
sin ()sin( )dd
2
o
rad
4 2 4 0 0 2 4 3
lI 8
2
2 o
4 3 3
2
rad
I o
8
2
lI
2 o
l 8 2 l
2
3
2
R 2 4
4 3
2
3
rad
I o
1 l
l and 377
et
100
2 1
R 377
rad
0.079
3 10000
2
1 50 7.9
0.0063
50 7.9
r
R
cd
R cd rad
For wire antennas (without insulation) there is no dielectric losses only conductor
losses from the metal antenna. For those cases we can approximate Rcd by:
l
R o
2b 2
cd
where b is the radius of the wire, is the angular frequency, is the conductivity of
the metal and l is the antenna length
I (z)dz
l=>Actual Length
I (c)le
l /2
1 l /2
le I (z)dz
I (c) l / 2
l/2
2
le
I (c) 0
I (z)dz
If a current I1 at the terminals of antenna no. 1 induces emf E21 at the open
terminals of antenna no. 2 and a current I2 at the terminals of antenna no. 2
induces emf E12 at the open terminals of antenna no. 1 then E21=E12
PROVIDED I1=I2.
ASSUMPTIONS:1)emfs are of same frequency
2)Medium between two antennas are linear passive and isotropic
3)Generator producing emf and ammeter for producing
current
have zero impedance or if not both the generator an ammeter impedances are
equal.
P.Jothilakshmi, AP/EC-SVCE
E12 E21
Zm Z12 Z 21
I2 I1
1 I1 2
Z11 Z22
E12 Zm I2
1 2
2
1
I1
1 2
Z11 Z22
Zm E21
I1 1 2
2
1
(Z22 Zm )I 2 Zm I1 0
Zm
I 2 I1 Eq1
Z 22 Z m
Applying kirchoff’s mesh law to loop 1
E12 (Z 22 Z m ).Zm
I2
[Z11 Z 22 Z m (Z11 Z 22 )]( Z 22 Z m )
E12 Z m Eq 3
I2
[Z11 Z 22 Z m (Z11 Z 22 )]
Question: P A
load
W
physical inc
P
Answer: Usually NOT P A W A
load eff inc eff
load
Antenna #1 Antenna #2
Arm, Dr
Atm, Dt R
2
A D
4
em o
Antenna #1 Antenna #2
Atm, Dt Arm, Dr
R
2
A (1 ) D ̂ ̂
2 * 2
4
em cd o w a
Antenna #2
rr)
tt)
The transmitted power density supplied by Antenna #1 at a distance R and direction rr) is given by:
PD (,)
W t gt t t
4R
t 2
PWA t gt
A t t t gt t t gr r r
4R 4R 4
r t r 2 r 2
P
D (,)D (,)
2
r
P 4R P.Jothilakshmi, AP/EC-SVCE
gt t t gr r r
t
VMRF/AVIT/ECE /III Year/V sem/ AWP/Unit -1/S.Vithyalakshmi
Friis Transmission Equation (no loss)
Antenna #1
Antenna #2
rr)
tt)
P
D (,)D(,)
2
r
P 4R
gt t t gr r r
t
If both antennas are pointing in the direction of their maximum radiation pattern:
P
2
D(,)D(,)
r
P 4R
gt t t gr r r
t
Antenna #2
rr)
tt)
D ( , ) D
2
P
(1 )(1 ( , ) ̂ ̂
2 * 2
2
r
)
4 R
cdt cdr r t gt t t gr r r w a
P t
G
• : wavelength [m]
G P 2
4r 4
R 2
receiving antenna
• PT: power delivered to the
transmitting antenna
2
•
PG G
GR: gain of the transmitting
antenna in the direction of the
4r
T T R receiving antenna
• GT: gain of the receiving
antenna in the direction of the
transmitting antenna
• Matched polarizations
jXA A RR R
Let powerRabsorbed
The byL ;antenna XAI 2 R A
RAP,
jXG
var.
2
I 2
VG
Generator
R R 2 X X 2
A G A
RG
RR G
RA
P VG 2
RG RA 2 X G X A 2
RA
VG RL
VG2 G R
P
2 2
G A
R R
X G
X
1 A
RG RG RG
P RA 2X G 2X A P R R
2
R 2 R R
A
VG2 G
A A G
VG2
2 2 RA RG R A 2 2
X A
A
2
RG R X G X A
P
0, when X A X G R 2
2RG R A RA 2RG R A 2R A
2 2
X A VG2 G
RA
2
R
2
G
P P P
Maximum : 0 0, when RG R A
RA X A RA
RA RG , X A XG
VG2
P
4RG
E E2 E
2
E
H
Z0
Z 0 377 ohms
for plane wave in
free space
VMRF/AVIT/ECE /III Year/V sem/ AWP/Unit -1/S.Vithyalakshmi
Receiving antenna equivalent
circuit
Antenna
Transmission
Distinct voltage & current patterns Line
driven by transmission line at midpoint gap
• i = 0 at end, maximum at midpoint
• v = 0 at midpoint, vmax atends i
E B