GENERAL EMBRYOLOGY

GERM CELL FORMATION &

FERTILIZATION
 The human somatic (body) cell contains 46
chromosomes, 46 being the diploid numbers for the
cell.
 Two of these are sex chromosomes ; the remainder
are autosomes
 Each chromosome is paired so that every cell has 22
homologous set of paired autosomes,with one
chromosome derived from mother & one from
father.
 Fertilization is the fusion of male & female germ cells
to form zygote.
 The process that produces male & female germ
cells(the spermatozoa & ova,collectively called
gametes) with half the number of chromosome of the
somatic cell is called meiosis.
 Prenatal development

 Divided into three successive phases.

 The first two constitute the embryonic stage,& the
third is fetal stage.
 The first phase begins at fertilization & spans the
first 4 weeks or so of development.It is mostly
characterized by cellular proliferation &
migration,with some differentiation.
 The second phase spans the next 4 weeks of
development & is characterized largely by
differentiation of all major external & internal
structures.
 From the end of second phase to term,further
development is largely a matter of growth &
maturation,& the embryo is now called a fetus.
 Formation of three layered embryo

 After fertilization ,mamalian development involves a

phase of rapid proliferation & migration of cell with
little or no differentiation.
 This proliferative stage last untill three germ layers
have been formed.
 So, fertilized egg initially undergoes a series of rapid
division that lead to formation of ball of cell,called as
morula.
 Later it transforms into fluid filled hollow ball,the
blastocyst.
 Two cell population can be recognized : those lining
the cavity(primary yolk sac),called trophoblast
cells,& small cluster within the cavity called the
embryoblast.
 Embryoblast forms embryo proper
 8th day of gestation: embryoblast differentiate into
two layered disk ,called bilaminar germ disk.
 The cells situated dorsally,or ectodermal layer ,are
columanr & reorganize to form the amniotic cavity.
 Those on the ventral aspect,the endodemal layer,are
cuboidal & form the roof of a second cavity(the
secondary yolk sac)
 Later the axis of the embryo is established& is
represented by a slight enlargement of ectodermal &
endodermal cells at the head(or rostral) end of the
embryo in a region called as prochordal plate.
 During the third week of development the bilaminar
embryonic disk is converted into trilaminar disk.
 Floor of the amniotic cavity is formed by the
ectodermal layer of the bilaminar embryo. The
primitive streak is a narrow groove terminating in a
circular depression called the primitive node.
 Surface ectodermal cells migrate to the streak
between the ectodermal and endodermal layers to
form a solid column..
 Through canalization of this cord of cells,the
notochord is formed.
 Space between the newly embryonic endoderm &
ectoderm form,called as mesoderm.
 The cells that accumulate anterior to the prochordal
plate as a result of migration of ectodermal cells
gives rise to cardiac plate.,the structure in which
heart forms.
Formation of neural tube & the fate of germ cells

 Events during the first three weeks of development

leads to formation of triple layered.or triploblastic
embryo.
 During the next 3 – 4 weeks of development,major
tissues & organs differentiates from the triploblastic
embryo; these included the head & face & the tissues
contributing to the development of teeth.
 The nervous system develops as a thickening with in
the ectodermal layer at the rostral end of the embryo.
The thickening constitute the neural plate.
 Folding of the embryo

 Folding of embryo occurs in two planes i.e

rostrocaudal & lateral axis.
 The head fold is critical for the formation of a
primitive stomatodeum or oral cavity; through this
fold ectoderm come to line stomatodeum,with the
stomatodeum separated from the gut by
buccopharyngeal membrane.
 The Neural Crest

 As the neural tube forms,a group of cells separate

from the neuroectoderm.
 These cells have the capacity to migrate &
differentiate extensively within the developing
embryo & they are basis for such structures as the
spinal sensory ganglia,sympathetic neurons etc.
 In the avian emryo these cells can be distinguished
differentiating & separating at the crest of the neural
folds.& hence the name.
 Neural crest cell in the head region not only helps in
formation of cranial sensory ganglia,they also
differentiate to form most of the connective tissue of
the head.
 Embryonic connective tissue elsewhere is derived
from mesoderm & is known as mesenchyme,whereas
in trhe head it is called as ectomesenchyme reflecting
its origin from neuroectoderm
 All the tissues of the tooth (except enamel) & its
supporting structures are derived directly from
neural crest cells.
DEVELOPMENT AND
GROWTH OF TEETH
 Primitive oral cavity or stomodeum is lined by
stratified squamous epithelium called as oral
ectoderm. At the junction of ectoderm endoderm of
foregut is ‘buccopharyngeal membrane’.
 About 27 day of I.U life it rupturs.
 Connective tissue cells underlying ectoderm are
neural crest or ectomesenchyme in origin.
 These cell induce the overlying ectoderm to start
tooth development.
 Primary Epithelial Band

 Two or three weeks after the rupture of the

buccopharyngeal membrane,when the embryo is 6
week old,certain ares of basal cells proliferate & a
continuous band of thickened epithelium forms
around the mouth in the presumptive upper & lower
jaws.
 These bands are roughly horseshoe shaped &
correspond in position to the future dental arches of
the upper & lower jaws
 Dental lamina

 2-3 weeks after rupture of buccopharyngeal

membrane , when embryo is 6 weeeks old,certain
areas of basal cells of the oral ectoderm proliferate
more rapidly than do the cells of the adjacent part.
 This leads to formation of primary epithelial band
which is a band of epithelium that has invaded into
underlying ectomesenchyme along each of the horse
–shoe shaped future dental arches.
 The formation of these bands is the result not so
much of increased proliferative activity within the
epithelium as of a change in the orientation of the
mitotic spindle & cleavage plane of dividing cells.
 At about seventh week the primary epithelial band
divides into an lingual process called as dental
lamina & buccal (outer) process called as vestibular
lamina
Sagittal section through the head of an embryo. A, The thickened epithelium of
the primary epithelial band. B, The same structure at higher magnification. C,
The change in plane of cleavage.
 Dental lamina serves as a primordium for the
ectodermal portion of the deciduous teeth.
 Distal extention give rise to permanent molar
 Lingual extention / successional lamina give rise to
rest other permanent teeth.
 Activity last over a period of at least 5 years.
 As the tooth continue to develop ,they loose
connection with dental lamina.
 They later break up by mesenchymal invasion.
 Remnants of dental lamina persist as epithelial
pearls or islands with in the jaw or in the
gingiva,called as ‘cell rest of serres’
 Vestibular lamina

 Develop labial to the dental lamina in each dental

arch as epithelial thickening. Also called as ‘Lip
furrow band’.
 Later it hollows & forms oral vestibule between
alveolar portion of the jaws & the lips & cheeks.
 Tooth Development

 At certain points along the dental lamina ,the

ectodermal cells multiply still more rapidly & form
little knobs that grow into underlying mesenchyme.
 These knobs represent the beginning of the ‘enamel
organ’ of the tooth bud of a deciduous tooth.
 Development of tooth results from interaction of the
epithelium derived from the first arch &
ectomesenchymal cells derived from neural crest
cells
 Developmental Stages

 Odontogenesis is devided into several morphological

stages ,named after shape of the enamel organ.
 Bud Stage

 In the bud stage enamel organ consist of peripherally

located low columnar cells & centrally located
polygonal cells.
 Many cells of tooth bud & surroundin
ectomesencyme undergo mitosis.
 As a result of that the ectomesenchymal surrounding
the tooth bud condenses.
 This condensed ectomesenchymal cell immediately
subjecent to tooth bud is called as dental papilla.
 The condensed ectomesenchyme that surroun the
tooth bud & dental papilla is called as dental sac.
 Both become well defined as cap & bell stage is
reached.
 Cap Stage

 Unequal growth in different parts of tooth bud leads

to cap stage,which is characterized by shallow
invagination on the deep surface of the bud.
 Outer enamel epithelium:Peripheral cells of the cap
stage are cuboidal,cover the convexity of the
“cap”.Separated from dental sac by delicate
basement membrane.
 Inner enamel epithelium: These are cell present in
the concavity of the “cap” become tall,columnar.
 Stellate reticulum:Polygonal cells present in the
centre begin to separate due to water being drawn
into the enamel organ from the surrounding dental
papilla as a result of osmotic force exerted by
glycosaminoglycans contained in the ground
substance.
 As a result the polygonal cell become star shaped but
maintain contact with each other by their
cytoplasmic process.
 As these star shaped cells form a cellular
network,they are called the Stellate reticulum.
 Acts as a shock absorber & support & protect the
delicate enamel forming cells.
 Dental papilla:Under the organizing influence of the
proliferating epithelium of the enamel organ,the
ectomesenchyme that is partially enclosed by the
invaginated portion of the inner enamel epithelium
proliferates.It condense to form dental papilla.
 Formative organ of dentin & primordium of pulp.
 Dental sac(Dental follicle):These result due to
marginal condensation of
ectomesenchyme,surrounding enamel organ &
dental papilla.
 Bell Stage

 As the invagination of epithelium deepens & its

margin continue to grow ,the enamel organ assumes
a bell shape.
 Crown shape is determined .
 The folding of enamel organ to cause different crown
shape is shown to be due to differential rates of
mitosis and differences in cell differentiation time
 The inner enamel epithelial cells which lie in the
future cusp tip or the incisal region stop dividing
earlier & begin to differentiate first.
 The pressure exerted by continuous cell division on
these differentiating cells from other areas of the
enamel organ causes the cell to be pushed out into
the enamel organ in the form of cusp tip.
 Cell proliferation & differentiation occur gradually
from cusp tip to the depth of sulcus.
 The determination of crown shape is under the
control of genes& their signalling molecule & growth
factor.
 IEE:Consist of single layer of cells that differentiate
prior to amelogenesis into tall columnar cells called
ameloblast.4-5µm in diameter & 40 µm in height.
 OEE:Flatten to low cuboidal form.
 Dental lamina:Seem to extend lingually & is termed
successional dental lamina.
 Dental papilla:Before the IEE begins to produce
enamel,the peripheral cells of mesenchymal papilla
differentiate into odontoblast.
 Stratum intermedium: few layer of squamous cell.
Lie between IEE & stellate reticulum. The well
developed cytoplasmic organelles ,acid
mucopolysaccharides & glycogen deposit indicates a
high degree of metabolic activity.
 This layer seem to be essential for enamel formation.
 Stellate Reticulum:Expands further. Before enamel
formation begins it collapses ,reducing the distance
between centrally situated ameloblast & nutrient
capillaries near OEE.

 The basement membrane that separates the enamel

organ & the dental papila just prior to dentin
formation is called the membrana preformitiva.
 Advanced Bell stage

 Characterized by commencement of mineralization &

root formation.
 The boundary between IEE & odontoblast outlines
the future dentinoenamel junction.
 The formation of dentin occurs first as a layer along
the future DEJ in the region of future cusp &
proceeds pulpally & apically.
 After the first layer of dentin is already formed ,the
ameloblast which has already differentiated from
IEE lay down enamel over the dentin in the future
incisal & cuspal areas.
 The cervical portion of enamel organ give rise to
hertwig epitheial root sheaths(HERS).
 Transitory Structure

 1. Enamel niche: The enamel organ may be seen to

have a double attachment of dental lamina to the
overlying oral epithelium enclosing ectomesenchyme
called enamel niche between them.This appearance
is due to funnel shaped depression of the dental
lamina.
 2. Enamel Knot: The cells in the centre of the enamel
organ are densely packed are called as Enamel knot.
 3.Enamel cord: vertical extension of enamel knot.
 4.Enamel septum: When the enamel cord extends to
meet the outer enamel epithelium.
 5. Enamel navel: The outer enamel epithelium at the
point of meeting shows a small depression & is called
as enamel naval.
 HERS & Root Formation

 Development of the root begins after enamel &

dentin formation has reached the future cemento
enamel junction.
 HERS consist of OEE & IEE only.The inner layer
cells normally do not produce enamel & remain
short.
 When these cells have induced the differentiaion of
radicular dental papilla into odontoblast & first layer
of dentin has been laid down,the HERS loses its
structural continuity.
Photomicrographs summarizing root formation. A, The root is beginning to form as
an extension of the inner and outer dental epithelia in the cervical loop region
(arrowhead), which form a bilayered structure called Hertwig’s epithelial root
sheath. The root sheath will induce differentiation of odontoblasts from the
radicular pulp. B, The differentiation of odontoblasts and the formation of root
dentin are shown. C, Root formation is almost complete. The root sheath is now a
small tag of epithelium that is inducing the final differentiation of odontoblasts at
the rim of the future apical foramen
 Its remenants remnants persist as an epithelial
network of strands or clumps near the external
surface of the root.
 These epithelial remanants are found in peridontal
ligament of erpted teeth & are called rest of
malassez.
 The differentiation of odontoblast & formation of
dentin follow the lengthening of the root sheath. At
the same time cells of dental sac proliferates &
invades the epithelial layer.
 The epithelium is moved away from the surface of
dentin so that connective tissue cells come into
contact with outer surface of the dentin &
differentiate into cementoblast that deposit a layer of
cementum onto surface of dentin.
 The outer & inner enamel epithelia bend at the
future CEJ into a horizontal plane ,narrowing the
wide cervical opening of the tooth germ.
 Differential growth of the epithelial diaphragm in
multi rooted teeth causes the division of the root
trunk into two or three roots.
 During the general growth of the enamel organ the
expansion of its cervical opening occur in such a way
that long tongue like extension of the horizontal
diaphragm develop.
 If cells of the HERS remain adherent to the dentin
surface ,they may differentiate into fully functioning
ameloblast & produce enamel. Such droplets of
enamel are called as enamel pearl.
HISTOPHYSIOLOGY
 A number of physiologic growth process participate
in the progressive development of the teeth.
 Phsiological stages in tooth development are:
 1.initiation
 2.proliferation
 3.histodifferentiation
 4.morphodifferentiation
 5.apposition
 Initiation

 Initiation requires ectomesenchymal-epithelial

interaction
 It has been demonstrated that dental papilla
mesenchyme can induce tooth epithelium & even
non-tooth epithelium to form enamel.
 Lack of initiation:Partial or complete anodontia.
 Abnormal initiation:single or multiple
supernumerary teeth.
 Proliferation

 Enhanced proliferative activity ensues at the points

of initiation & results successively in the bud,cap &
bell stages of the odontogenic organ.
 Proliferative growth causes regular changes in the
size & proportions of the growing tooth germ.
 Histodifferentiation

 Succeeds the proliferative stage.

 The formative cells of the tooth germs developing
during the proliferative stage undergo definite
morphologic as well as functional changes & acquire
their functional asignment(the appositional growth
potential)
 The cells differentiate & give up their capacity to
multiply.
 This phase reaches its highest development in the
bell stage of the enamel organ ,just preceding the
formation & apposition of dentin & enamel.
 The differentiation of epithelial cells preceeds & is
essential to the differentiation of the odontoblasts &
the initiation of dentin formation.
 In vitamin A deficiency the ameloblast fail to
differentiate properly.
 Consequently ,their organizing influence on the
adjacent mesenchymal cells is disturbed ,& atypical
dentin ,known as osteodentin ,is formed.
 Morphodifferentiation

 The relative size of future tooth is establish by

morphodifferentiation,that is by differential growth.
 Morphodifferentiation is therefore impossible
without proliferation
 The advanced bell stage marks not only active
histodifferentiation but also an important stage of
morphodifferentiation in the crown ,outlining the
future DEJ.
 The DEJ & DCJ ,which are different & characteristic
for each type of tooth acts as blueprint pattern.
 In confirmity with this pattern the
ameloblast,odontoblast & cementoblast deposit
enamel,dentin & cementum,& thus give the
completed tooth it’s characteristic form & size.
 Disturbance: affect the form & size of tooth without
impairing the function of ameloblast or odontoblast.
 Results in supernumerary cusp or root ,twinning,loss
of cusp or root.
 “Hutchinson’s incisor”
 Apposition

 Apposition is deposition of hard dental structures

occur in a layer like manner.
 Appositional growth is characterized by regular &
rhythmic deposition of extracellular matrix,which is
of itself incapable of further growth.
 Defects results in “Enamel hypoplasia”
 “Hypocalcification”.
 Tooth Type determination

 The determination of specific tooth types at their

correct positions in the jaws is referred to as
patterning of the dentition.
 Although in some animals are all the same
shape(homodent),in most mammals they are
different (heterodont),falling into three
families:incisiform,caniniform,&molariform.
 Two hypothetical models have been proposed to
explain how these different shapes are determined
 1.Field model theory
 2. Clone model theory
 Field model: Proposes that the factors responsible
for tooth shape reside with in the ectomesenchyme
in distinct but graded fields for each tooth family.
 The fact that each of the fields expresses differing
combinations of patterning homeobox genes
supports this theory.
The homeobox genes Msx-1, Msx-2, Dlx-2,
and Barx-1 expressed in mandibular
mouse ectomesenchyme associated with
differing tooth families.
 Clone model:Proposes that each tooth class is
derived from a clone of ectomesenchymal cells
programmed by epithelium to produce teeth of a
given pattern.
Clone theory. A, The molar clone has induced the dental lamina to begin tooth development. At
its posterior border the clone and dental lamina grow posteriorly by means of the progress zone.
B, When a clone reaches the critical size, a tooth bud is initiated at its center. A zone of inhibition
surrounds the tooth bud, and the next tooth bud, C, is not initiated until the progress zone of the
clone has escaped its influence