Waves

Session 23-25

Course : SCIE6004 – Physics I (4/2 Credits)

Year : 2016

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 1. Types of Waves

(1) Mechanical waves. These waves have two central

features: They are governed by Newton’s laws, and they
can exist only within a material medium, such as water,
air, and rock. Common examples include water waves,
sound waves, and seismic waves.
(2) Electromagnetic waves. These waves require no
material medium to exist. All electromagnetic waves
travel through a vacuum at the same exact speed c=
299,792,458 m/s. Common examples include visible and
ultraviolet light, radio and television waves, microwaves,
x rays, and radar.
(3) Matter waves. These waves are associated with
electrons, protons, and other fundamental particles, and
even atoms and molecules. These waves are also called
matter waves.
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 2. Transverse and
Longitudinal Waves

• In a transverse wave, the

of every such oscillating
element along the wave
is perpendicular to the
direction of travel of the
wave.

• In a longitudinal wave the

motion of the oscillating
particles is parallel to the
direction of the wave’s
travels.

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 3. Wave variables

y(x,t) = ym sin(kx- ωt)

• The amplitude ym : the magnitude of the maximum
displacement of the elements from their equilibrium
positions as the wave passes through them.
• The phase of the wave: argument (kx- ωt + f) of the
sine function. As the wave sweeps through a string
element at a particular position x, the phase changes
linearly with time t.
• The wavelength l : the distance parallel to the
direction of the wave’s travel) between repetitions of
the shape of the wave (or wave shape). It is related to
the angular wave number, k, by

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• The period of oscillation T : the time for an element to
move through one full oscillation. It is related to the
angular frequency, w , by : ω= 2π/ T

• The frequency f : defined as 1/T and is related to the

angular frequency w by : f =1/T = ω/ 2π

• A phase constant f in the wave function:

y= ymsin(kx –w t+ f).
The value of f can be chosen so that the function gives
some other displacement and slope at x= 0 when t = 0.

• The Speed of a Traveling Wave V= ω/ k = λ/ T = λ f

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Example, Transverse Wave
A wave traveling along a string is described by :
y(x,t)=0,00327 sin(72,1x-2,72t) m
(a) What is the amplitude of this wave?
(b) What are the wavelength, period, and frequency of this
wave?
(c) What is the velocity of this wave?
(d) What is the displacement y of the string at x=22,5 cm
and t =18,9 s

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 4. The Wave Equation

The general differential equation that

governs the travel of waves of all types

Solution of this equation:

y(x,t) = ym sin(kx- ωt + ф)

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 5. The Speed of Travelling Waves

Wave Speed on a Stretched String

The speed of a wave along a stretched ideal string
depends only on the tension and linear density of
the string and not on the frequency of the wave.

Here t is the tension in the string,,

and µ is the linear mass density of the string

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 6. Energy and Power of
a Wave Traveling

A snapshot of a traveling wave on a string at time t=0, string

element a is at displacement y= ym . and string element b is
at displacement y=0.
The kinetic energy of the string element at each position
depends on the transverse velocity of the element.
The potential energy depends on the amount by which the
string element is stretched as the wave passes through it

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 y
u  ωymCos(kx  ωt)
t
1 1
dK  dmu2  ( dx)(ωym ) 2 Cos2 (kx  ωt)
2 2
dK 1
 Vω2 y 2m Cos2 (kx  ωt)
dt 2
dK 1 1
( ) avg  Vω y m (Cos (kx  ωt)) avg  Vω2 y 2m
2 2 2
dt 2 4
The average power, which is the average rate at which
energy of both kinds (kinetic energy and elastic potential
energy) is transmitted by the wave, is:
dK 1
Pavg  2( )avg  Pavg  Vω ym
2 2
dt 2
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 7. The Superposition of Waves

• Overlapping waves algebraically add to produce a resultant

wave (or net wave).
• Overlapping waves do not in any way alter the travel of
each other.
If two sinusoidal waves of the same amplitude and wavelength
travel in the same direction along a stretched string, they
interfere to produce a resultant sinusoidal wave traveling in
that direction.
y1 (x,t) = ym Sin(kx- w t) y2(x,t) = ym Sin(kx- w t + f)
y’(x,t) = y1(x,t) + y2(x,t)
= ym Sin(kx- w t) + ym Sin(kx- w t + f)
y’(x,t) = ( 2 ym Cos(f/2) Sin(kx- w t + f/2)
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8. Interference of Waves

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 Example, Interference of Two Waves:

Two identical sinusoidal waves moving in the same direction

along a stretched string, interfere with each other. The
amplitude ym of each wave is 9,8 mm, and the phase
difference between them is 1000 .
(a) What is the amplitude y’m of the result wave due to the
interference and what is the type of this interference?
(b) What phase difference f , in radians and wavelengths, will
give the resultant wave and amplitude of 4,9 mm?

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A phasor of magnitude ym1 rotating about an origin at angular
speed w represents a sinusoidal wave. The phasor’s projection
y1 on the vertical axis represents the displacement of a point
through which the wave passes.

A second phasor, also of angular speed ω but of magnitude

ym2 and rotating at a constant angle ɸ from the first phasor,
represents a second wave, with a phase constantɸ
The resultant wave is represented by the vector sum ym of
the two phasors.
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 9. Standing Waves and Resonances

If two sinusoidal waves of the same amplitude and wavelength

travel in opposite directions along a stretched string, their
interference with each other produces a standing wave.

y1(x,t) = ym Sin(kx- w t) y2(x,t) = ym Sin(kx+ w t)

y’(x,t) = y1(x,t) + y2(x,t)
= ym Sin(kx- w t) + ym Sin(kx+ w t)
y’(x,t) = [ 2ym Sin kx ] Cosw t
y’(x,t) : displacement
2ym Sin kx : the magnitude gives amplitude at position x
Cosw t : oscillating term

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In the standing wave equation, the amplitude is zero for
values of kx that give sin kx= 0.

Those values are : kx =np, for n =0,1,2, . . . .

Since k =2p/l ,
we get x = nl/2, for n =0,1,2, . . . (nodes),
as the positions of zero amplitude or the nodes.
The adjacent nodes are therefore separated by l/2, half a
wavelength.

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The amplitude of the standing wave has a maximum value of
2ym, which occurs for values of kx that give | sin kx | =1.
Those values are

kx  2 π , 2 π , 2
1 3 5
π , ....  (n  1
2
)π for n  0,1,2, ..
Substituti ng k  2πl , we get :
l
x  (n  1
2
) 2
, for n  0,1,2, .. (antinodes )
as the positions of maximum amplitude or the antinodes.
The antinodes are separated by λ /2 and are located
halfway between pairs of nodes.

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Standing Waves, Reflections at a Boundary

(a) A pulse incident from

the right is reflected at the
left end of the string, wich
is tied to a wall. Note that
the reflected pulse is
inverted from incident
pulse.

(b) Here the left end of

the string is tied to a ring
that can slide without
friction up and down the
rod. Now the pulse is not
inverted by the reflection
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 Standing Waves and Resonance
For certain frequencies, the
interference produces a standing
wave pattern (or oscillation mode)
with nodes and large antinodes.

Such a standing wave is said to

be produced at resonance, and
the string is said to resonate at
these certain frequencies, called
resonant frequencies.

Stroboscopic photographs reveal (imperfect) standing wave

patterns on a string being made to oscillate by an oscillator at
the left end. The patterns occur at certain frequencies of
oscillation. (Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs)
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A string, stretched between two clamps, is made to oscillate
in standing wave patterns.
(a)The simplest possible pattern consists of one loop, which
refers to the composite shape formed by the string in its
extreme displacements ( the solid and dashed lines)
(b) The next simplest pattern has two loops
(c) The next has three loops
2L V V
l  , f  n n  1, 2, 3, .......
n l 2L
Here V is the speed of travelling waves on the string.
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The frequencies associated with these modes are often
labeled f1, f2, f3, and so on.
The collection of all possible oscillation modes is called
the harmonic series, and n is called the harmonic
number of the nth harmonic.

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Wavefronts are surfaces
over which the oscillations
due to the sound wave
have the same value; such
surfaces are represented
by whole or partial circles
in a two-dimensional
drawing for a point source.
Rays are directed lines
perpendicular to the
wavefronts that indicate
the direction of travel of
the wavefronts.
10. Sound Waves
Wave fronts
s Ray
Ray
s
A sound wave travels from a point source S
through a three-dimensional medium. The
wavefronts form spheres centred on S: the
rays are radial to S. The short double-headed
arrows indicate that elements of the medium
oscillate parallel to the rays
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 11. Speed of Sound
As sound wave passes through air, potential energy is associated
with periodic compressions and expansions of small volume
elements of the air.
Bulk Modulus, B, determines the extent to which an element of a
medium changes in volume when the pressure on it changes. B is
defined as:
Δp
B
ΔV/V
Here ΔV/V is the fractional change in volume produced by a
change in pressure Δp.

t
But : V  and if B replaces t dan  replaces 

B This is the speed of sound in a
V (speed of sound) medium with bulk modulus B
ρ
and density ρ
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A compression pulse is sent from right to left down a long air-filled
tube. The reference frame of the figure is chosen so that the pulse is at
rest and the air moves from left to right . (a) An element of air of width
∆X moves toward the pulse with speed V. (b) The leading face of the
element enters the pulse. The forces acting on the leading and trailing
faces (due to air pressure) are shown
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 We have: F = pA- (p +ΔP)A = - ΔP.A (net force)

Also : Δm = ρ ΔV = ρ A.Δx = ρ AV.Δt

and : a = ΔV/Δt Δt= Δx/V

- ΔP.A = ( ρ AV.Δt )( ΔV/Δt )
p
Thereforce : V  
2
V/V
V A Δ ΔV ΔV
But :  
V AV ΔV V
p p
Finally : V 2
  B
V/V ΔV/V
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Traveling Sound Waves

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(a) A sound wave traveling through a long air-filled tube
with speed v, consist of a moving, periodic pattern of
expansions and compressions of the air.
The wave is shown at an arbitrary instant.

(b) A horizontal expanded view of a short piece of the tube.

As the wave passes, an air element of thickness ∆x
oscillates left and right in simple harmonic motion about
its equilibrium position.
At the instant shown in (b), the element happens to be
displaced a distance s to the right of its equilibrium
position.
Its maximum displacement, either right or left, is Sm

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(a) S(x,t)= Sm cos(kx- ωt)
here : S(x,t) : displacement
Sm : displacement
amplitude
}
cos(kx- ωt) : oscillating
term

(b) ∆p(x,t)=∆pm sin(kx- ωt)

∆p(x,t) : pressure
variation
∆pm : pressure
amplitude
sin(kx- ωt) : oscillating
term

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Example, Pressure and Displacement Amplitudes

The maximum pressure amplitude ∆pm that human ear can

tolerate in loud sounds is about 28 Pa (wich is very much
less than the normal air pressure 105 Pa). What is the
displacement amplitude Sm for such a sound in air of
density ρ =1,21 kg/m3, at a frequency of 1000 Hz and a
speed of 343 m/s?

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12. Interference of Sound Wave

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 Interference
Phase difference ɸ can be related to path length difference
ΔL, by noting that a phase difference of 2π rad corresponds
to one wavelength.
fΔL ΔL
Therefore :  f  2π
2π λ λ
Fully constructive interference occurs when ɸ is zero, 2π, or
any integer multiple of 2π.
ɸ= m(2π). m=0, 1, 2, 3, ........ (fully constructive interference)
→ (ΔL/λ)= 0, 1, 2, 3 , ..... (fully constructive interference)
Fully destructive interference occurs when ɸ is an odd
multiple of π :
ɸ= (2m+1)π. m=0, 1, 2, 3, ..... (fully desstructive interference)
→ (ΔL/λ)= 0,5;1,5; 2,5 , ..... (fully destructive interference)
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 Beats
When two sound waves whose frequencies are close, but not
the same, are superimposed, a striking variation in the
intensity of the resultant sound wave is heard. This is the beat
phenomenon.
The wavering of intensity occurs at a frequency which is
the difference between the two combining frequencies.
S1= Sm Cosω1t and S2= Sm Cosω2t
S=S1+S2 = Sm (Cosω1t + Cosω2t )
= 2Sm Cos{ ½(ω1- ω2)}t Cos{½(ω1+ ω2)}t
ω’ = ½(ω1 - ω2) and ω = ½(ω1 + ω2)
S(t)= { 2Sm Cos ω’t} Cos ωt ω >> ω’
ω beat = 2 ω’ = 2(½) (ω1- ω2) = (ω1- ω2)
fbeat= f1-f2 ( beat frequency )
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 Example, Beat Frequencies:

(a, b) The pressure variations Δp of two sound waves as

they would be detected separetly.The frequenciesof the
waves are nearly equal.
(c) The resultant pressure bariations if the two waves are
detected simultaneously.
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 13. Intensity and Sound Level

The intensity I of a sound wave at a surface is the

average rate per unit area at which energy is
transferred by the wave through or onto the
surface.
Therefore, I =P/A
where P is the time rate of energy transfer (the
power) of the sound wave and A is the area of the
surface intercepting the sound.
The intensity I is related to the displacement
amplitude sm of the sound wave by

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Intensity and Sound Level: Variation with Distance

PS
I
4p r 2

A point source S emits

r
sound waves uniformly
in all directions.
S
The waves pass
through an imaginary
sphere of radius that is
centered on S

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 Intensity and Sound Level: The Decibel Scale
b = (10 db) log (I / I0 )
Here dB is the abbreviation for decibel, the unit of
sound level.
I0 is a standard reference intensity ( 10-12 W/m2),
chosen near the lower limit of the human range of
hearing.
For I =I0, gives b =10 log 1 = 0,
(our standard reference level corresponds to zero
decibels).

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 14. Doppler Effect
When the motion of detector or source is toward the other,
the sign on its speed must give an upward shift in
frequency.
When the motion of detector or source is away from the
other, the sign on its speed must give a downward shift in
frequency.
V  VD
f'  f (General Doppler efffect)
V V
Here the emitted frequency is f, the detected frequency f’
, v is the speed of sound through the air, vD is the
detector’s speed relative to the air, and vS is the source’s
speed relative to the air.

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Reference.
Halliday D.; Resniick R. and Walker J. (2010). Principles Of
Physics, Extended, ninth Edition , John Wiley & SONS Inc, New
York, ISBN: 978-0-470-894187

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