1

Materials Science and

Engineering

Eighth Edition

William D. Callister, Jr.

David G. Rethwisch

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill

© John Companies
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Chapter 5

Imperfections in Solids

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill

© John Companies
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 3

Topics Covered in Chapter 5

 5-1: Fundamental Concepts

 5-2: Vacancies and Self-Interstitials
 5-3: Impurities in Solids
 5-4: Dislocations – Linear Defects
 5-5: Interfacial Defects
 5-6: Atomic Vibrations
 5-7: Basic Concepts of Microscopy
 5-8: Microscopic Techniques
 5-9: Grain Size Determination
Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-1: Fundamental Concepts

IMPERFECTIONS
 Various defects that exists throughout crystalline
materials on an atomic scale.

CRYSTALLINE DEFECT
 Refers to a lattice irregularity having one or more of its
dimensions on the order of an atomic diameter.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

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5-2: Vacancies and Self-Interstitial

VACANCY
 The simplest of the Point defects, normally occupied
from which an atom is missing.

SELF-INTERSTITIAL
 An atom from the crystal that is crowded into an
interstitial site, a small void space that under ordinary
circumstances is not occupied.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-2: Vacancies and Self-Interstitial

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF EQUILIBRIUM

NUMBER OF VACANCIES
𝑄𝑣 𝑁𝐴𝜌
𝑁𝑣 = 𝑁 exp − 𝑁=
𝑘𝑇 𝐴
where: where:
Nv – number of vacancy N – number of atomic sites (atoms/m3)
N – number of atomic sites (atoms/m3) NA – Avogradro’s Number
Q – energy required for the formation of vacancy A – Atomic Weight of an Element
k – Boltzmann’s Constant (1.38x10^-23 J/atom · K) (8.62x10^-5 eV/atom · K) 𝝆 - Density
T – Temperature (degree Celsius, degree Fahrenheit, Kelvin, Rankine)

The equilibrium number of vacancies Nv for a given

quantity of material depends on and increases with
temperature according to the aforementioned formula.
Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.
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5-2: Vacancies and Self-Interstitial

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 5.1

Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies per cubic
meter of copper at 1000°C. The energy for vacancy
formation is 0.9 eV/atom; the atomic weight and density
(at 1000°C) for copper are 63.5g/mol and 8.4 g/cm3,
respectively.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-3: Impurities in Solids

ALLOYS
 In metals, which impurity atoms have been added
intentionally to impart specific characteristics to the
materials. Alloying is used in metals to improve
mechanical strength and corrosion resistance.

 Alloys are solid solutions.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-3: Impurities in Solids

SOLID SOLUTIONS
 It forms when, as the solute atoms are added to the
host material, the crystal structure is maintained and
no new structures are formed.

 A solid solution is also compositionally homogeneous;

the impurity atoms are randomly and uniformly
dispersed within the solid.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-3: Impurities in Solids

SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTION

 Solute or impurity atoms replace or substitute for the
host atom.

INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION

 Impurity atoms fill the voids or interstices among the
host atom.

Several features of the solute and solvent atoms

determine the degree to which the former dissolves in
the latter, as follows:
Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-3: Impurities in Solids

1. Atomic Size Factor

 Appreciable quantities of a solute may be
accommodated in this type of solid only when the
difference in atomic radii between the two atom types
is less than about ±15%.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-3: Impurities in Solids

2. Crystal Structure
 For appreciable solid solubility the crystal structures
for metal of both types must be the same.

3. Electronegativity
 The more electronegative one element and the more
electronegative the other, the greater the likelihood
that they will form an intermetallic compound instead
of a substitutional solid solution.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-3: Impurities in Solids

4. Crystal Structure
 Other factors being equal, a metal will have more of a
tendency to dissolve another metal of higher valency
than one of a lower valency.

Example of Substitutional solid solution is found in

copper and nickel.

Example of Interstitial solid solution is found in Carbon.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-4: Dislocations-Linear Defects

DISLOCATION
 A linear or one-dimensional defect around which some
of the atoms are misaligned.

EDGE DISLOCATION
 A linear defect that centers on the line that is defined
along the end of the extra half-plane of atoms,
sometimes termed dislocation line.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-4: Dislocations-Linear Defects

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-4: Dislocations-Linear Defects

SCREW DISLOCATION
 Being formed by a shear stress that is applied to
produce distortion.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

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5-4: Dislocations-Linear Defects

BURGERS VECTOR
 The magnitude and direction of the lattice distortion
associated with a dislocation, usually denoted by b.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

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5-5: Interfacial Defects

INTERFACIAL DEFECTS
 These are boundaries that have two dimensions and
normally separate regions of the materials that have
different crystal structures and/or crystallographic
orientations.

These imperfections include external surfaces, grain

boundaries, phase boundaries, twin boundaries, and
stacking fault.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-5: Interfacial Defects

INTERFACIAL DEFECTS
 These are boundaries that have two dimensions and
normally separate regions of the materials that have
different crystal structures and/or crystallographic
orientations.

These imperfections include external surfaces, grain

boundaries, phase boundaries, twin boundaries, and
stacking fault.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-6: Atomic Vibrations

ATOMIC VIBRATIONS
 Every atom in a solid material is vibrating very rapidly
about its lattice position within the crystal. At any
instant of time not all atoms vibrate at the same
frequency and amplitude, nor with the same energy.

 At room temperature, a typical vibrational frequency is

on the order of 10^13 vibrations per second, whereas
the amplitude is a few thousandths of a nanometer.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-7: Basic Concepts of Microscopy

 Microscopic examination is an extremely useful tool in

the study and characterization of materials.
Several important applications of microstructural
examinations are as follows:
1. to ensure that the associations between the properties and
structure (and defects) are properly understood;
2. to predict the properties of materials once these
relationships have been established;
3. to design alloys with new property combinations;
4. to determine whether or not a material has been correctly
heat treated; and
Figure
5. to1-18: Structurethe
ascertain of the communication
mode electronicsfracture.
of mechanical industry.
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5-8: Microscopic Techniques

OPTICAL MICROSCOPY
 With optical microscopy, the light microscope is used to study
the microstructure; optical and illumination systems are its
basic elements.

METALLOGRAPHIC
 Investigations of metals using optical microscopy, since
metals are first to be examined.

ETCHING
 The surface treatment of a microstructure using appropriate
chemical
Figure reagents
1-18: Structure of theis termed as electronics
communication etching. industry.
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5-8: Microscopic Techniques

ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
 An image of the structure under investigation is formed using
beams of electrons instead of light radiation. According to
quantum mechanics, a high velocity electron will become
wavelike, having a wavelength that is inversely proportional
to its velocity.

TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY (TEM)

 Magnifications approaching 1,000,000x are possible with
transmission electron microscopy, which is frequently used to
study dislocation.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-8: Microscopic Techniques

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY (SEM)
 Magnifications ranging from 10 to in excess of 50,000 times
are possible.

SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPY (SPM)

 Magnifications as high as 10^9x are possible, much better
resolutions are attainable than with other microscopic
technique.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-9: Grain Size Determination

GRAIN SIZE
 Often determined when the properties of a polycrystalline
material are under consideration. It may be estimated by
using an intercept method.

 The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has

devised several standard comparison charts, all having
different average grain sizes.

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-9: Grain Size Determination

𝑁 ′ = 0.155 × 10 0.301 𝑛−1

where:
N’ – average number of grains per square centimeter at a magnification of 100x
n – grain size number

2
𝑁′𝑀 𝑀 = 0.155 × 10 0.301 𝑛−1

100
where:
N’M – number of grains per square centimeter at a magnification M
*The inclusion of the (M/100) 2
term makes use of the fact that, while magnification is a length parameter,
area is expressed in terms of units of length squared.
Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-9: Grain Size Determination

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 5.2

(a) Determine the ASTM grain size number of a metal
specimen if 7 grains per square centimeter are
measured at a magnification of 100x.
(b) For the same specimen, how many grams per
square centimeter will there be at a magnification of
85x?

Figure 1-18: Structure of the communication electronics industry.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies