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(Eq. 9.19)
(Eq. 9.20)
hth (%)
process, cycle 1-2′-3′-4-1 has the greater
thermal efficiency.
►Accordingly, the Brayton cycle thermal 2 4 6 8 10
efficiency increases as the compressor Compressor
pressure ratio increases. Pressure Ratio
Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on
Brayton Cycle Performance (4 of 7)
►Increasing the compressor pressure ratio from p2/p1 to
p2′/p1 changes the cycle from 1-2-3-4-1 to 1-2′-3′-4-1.
►Since the average temperature of heat
addition is greater in cycle 1-2′-3′-4-1, and
both cycles have the same heat rejection
process, cycle 1-2′-3′-4-1 has the greater
thermal efficiency.
►Accordingly, the Brayton cycle thermal
efficiency increases as the compressor
pressure ratio increases.
►The turbine inlet temperature also
increases with increasing compressor
ratio – from T3 to T3′.
Thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle
Wnet Qout
h th , Brayton 1
Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.
Apply the conservation of energy to process 2-3 for P = constant (no work), steady-
flow, and neglect changes in kinetic and potential energies.
E in E out
m 2 h2 Q in m
3h3
The conservation of mass gives
in m
m out
m2 m3 m
For constant specific heats, the heat added per unit mass flow is
Q in m (h3 h2 )
Q in mC
p (T3 T2 )
Q in
qin C p (T3 T2 ) 23
m
The conservation of energy for process 4-1 yields for constant specific heats (let’s
take a minute for you to get the following result)
Q out m (h4 h1 )
Q out mC
p (T4 T1 )
Q out
qout C p (T4 T1 )
m
The thermal efficiency becomes
Q out q
h th , Brayton 1 1 out
Q in qin
C p (T4 T1 )
1
C p (T3 T2 )
(T4 T1 )
h th , Brayton 1
(T3 T2 )
T1 (T4 / T1 1)
1
T2 (T3 / T2 1)
24
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so
25
where the pressure ratio is rp = P2/P1 and
1
h th , Brayton 1 ( k 1)/ k
rp
26
Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on
Brayton Cycle Performance (4 of 7)
►Increasing the compressor pressure ratio from p2/p1 to
p2′/p1 changes the cycle from 1-2-3-4-1 to 1-2′-3′-4-1.
►Since the average temperature of heat
addition is greater in cycle 1-2′-3′-4-1, and
both cycles have the same heat rejection
process, cycle 1-2′-3′-4-1 has the greater
thermal efficiency.
►Accordingly, the Brayton cycle thermal
efficiency increases as the compressor
pressure ratio increases.
►The turbine inlet temperature also
increases with increasing compressor
ratio – from T3 to T3′.
Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on
Brayton Cycle Performance (5 of 7)
►However, there is a limit on the maximum
temperature at the turbine inlet imposed by
metallurgical considerations of the turbine blades.
►Let’s consider the effect of increasing compressor
pressure ratio on Brayton cycle performance when
the turbine inlet temperature is held constant.
►This is investigated using the T-s diagram as
presented next.
Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on
Brayton Cycle Performance (6 of 7)
►The figure shows the T-s diagrams of two ideal
Brayton cycles having the same turbine inlet temperature
but different compressor pressure ratios.
►Cycle A has the greater
compressor pressure ratio and
thus the greater thermal efficiency.
►Cycle B has the larger enclosed
area and thus the greater net work
developed per unit of mass flow.
►For Cycle A to develop the same
net power as Cycle B, a larger
mass flow rate would be required
and this might dictate a larger
system.
Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on
Brayton Cycle Performance (7 of 7)
►Accordingly, for turbine-powered vehicles, where
size and weight are constrained, it may be
desirable to operate near the compressor pressure
ratio for greater net work per unit of mass flow and
not the pressure ratio for greater thermal efficiency.
What happens to hth, win /wout, and wnet as the
pressure ratio rp is increased? Consider the T-s
diagram for the cycle and note that the area enclosed
by the cycle is the net heat added to the cycle. By the
first law applied to the cycle, the net heat added to the
cycle is equal to the net work done by the cycle. Thus,
the area enclosed by the cycle on the T-s diagram also
represents the net work done by the cycle.
31
Let's take a closer look at the effect of the pressure ratio on the net work done.
wnet wturb wcomp
C p (T3 T4 ) C p (T2 T1 )
C p T3 (1 T4 / T3 ) C p T1 (T2 / T1 1)
1 ( k 1)/ k
C p T3 (1 ( k 1)/ k
) C p T1 (rp 1)
rp
32
Note that the net work is zero when
k /( k 1)
T
rp 1 and rp 3
T1
For fixed T3 and T1, the pressure ratio that makes the work a maximum is obtained
from:
dwnet
0
drp
This is easier to do if we let X = rp(k-1)/k
1
wnet C p T3 (1 ) C p T1 ( X 1)
X
dwnet
C p T3[0 ( 1) X 2 ] C p T1[1 0] 0
dX
Solving for X
33
Then, the rp that makes the work a maximum for the constant property case and fixed
T3 and T1 is
For the ideal Brayton cycle, show that the following results are true.
•When rp = rp, max work, T4 = T2
•When rp < rp, max work, T4 > T2
•When rp > rp, max work, T4 < T2
The following is a plot of net work per unit mass and the efficiency for the above
example as a function of the pressure ratio.
280 0.60
260 0.55
240 0.50
0.45
220
0.40
w net kJ/kg
hth,Brayton
200 T1 = 22C
0.35
180 P1 = 95 kPa
T3 = 1100 K 0.30
160 ht = hc = 100% 0.25
140 0.20
rp,max
120 0.15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 34
Pratio
Gas Turbine Power Plant Irreversibility (1 of 3)
►The most significant irreversibility by far is the
irreversibility of combustion. This type of irreversibility is
considered in Chap. 13, where combustion fundamentals
are developed.
►Irreversibilities related to flow through the turbine and
compressor also significantly impact gas turbine
performance. They act to
►decrease the work developed by the turbine and
►increase the work required by the compressor,
►thereby decreasing the net work of the power plant.
(W t / m ) (h3 h4 )
ht
(Wt / m ) s (h3 h4s )
(W c / m ) s (h2s h1 )
hc
(Wc / m ) (h2 h1 )
The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle operates with air entering the compressor at 95
kPa, 22oC. The pressure ratio rp is 6:1 and the air leaves the heat addition process at
1100 K. Determine the compressor work and the turbine work per unit mass flow,
the cycle efficiency, the back work ratio, and compare the compressor exit
temperature to the turbine exit temperature. Assume constant properties.
Apply the conservation of energy for steady-flow and neglect changes in kinetic and
potential energies to process 1-2 for the compressor. Note that the compressor is
isentropic.
E in E out
m h W
1 1 comp m 2 h2
The conservation of mass gives
in m
m out
1 m
m 2 m
38
For constant specific heats, the compressor work per unit mass flow is
Wcomp m (h2 h1 )
Wcomp mC
p (T2 T1 )
Wcomp
wcomp C p (T2 T1 )
m
Since the compressor is isentropic
39
wcomp C p (T2 T1 )
kJ
1005
. (492.5 295) K
kg K
kJ
19815
.
kg
The conservation of energy for the turbine, process 3-4, yields for constant specific
heats (let’s take a minute for you to get the following result)
Wturb m (h3 h4 )
Wturb mC
p (T3 T4 )
Wturb
wturb C p (T3 T4 )
m
Since process 3-4 is isentropic
40
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that
( k 1) / k
T4 1
T3 rp
( k 1) / k
1 1
(1.4 1) /1.4
T4 T3 1100 K 659.1 K
r 6
p
kJ
wturb C p (T3 T4 ) 1005
. (1100 659.1) K
kg K
kJ
442.5
kg
We have already shown the heat supplied to the cycle per unit mass flow in process
2-3 is m 2 m 3 m
m h Q m h
2 2 in 3 3
Q in
qin h3 h2
m
kJ
C p (T3 T2 ) 1005
. (1100 492.5) K
kg K
kJ
609.6 41
kg
The net work done by the cycle is
wnet wturb wcomp
kJ
(442.5 19815
. )
kg
kJ
244.3
kg
The cycle efficiency becomes
wnet
h th , Brayton
qin
kJ
244.3
kg
0.40 or 40%
kJ
609.6
kg
42
The back work ratio is defined as
win wcomp
BWR
wout wturb
kJ
19815.
kg
0.448
kJ
442.5
kg
Note that T4 = 659.1 K > T2 = 492.5 K, or the turbine outlet temperature is greater
than the compressor exit temperature. Can this result be used to improve the cycle
efficiency?
43
Gas Turbine Power Plant Loss
►The net work per unit of mass flowing is not altered with the
inclusion of a regenerator. Accordingly, since the heat added is
reduced, thermal efficiency increases.
Regenerator Effectiveness (1 of 3)
►Since a finite temperature difference must exist
between the two streams of the regenerator for heat
transfer to take place between the streams, the cold-
side exiting temperature, Tx, must be less than the
hot-side entering temperature, T4.
►As the stream-to-stream
temperature difference becomes
small Tx approaches T4, but
cannot exceed it. Accordingly, T4
Tx ≤ T4.
►As the enthalpy of the air
varies only with temperature, we
also have hx ≤ h4.
Regenerator Effectiveness (2 of 3)
►The regenerator effectiveness is defined as
the ratio of the actual enthalpy increase of the air
flowing through the cold side of the regenerator,
hx – h2, to the maximum theoretical enthalpy
increase, h4 – h2.
(Eq. 9.27)
Regenerator Effectiveness (3 of 3)
►In practice, regenerator effectiveness values
range from 60-80%, approximately. Thus, the
temperature Tx at the combustor inlet is invariably
below the temperature T4 at the turbine exit.
►Selection of a regenerator is largely an
economic decision.
►With regeneration less fuel is consumed by the
combustor but another component, the
regenerator, is required.
►When considering use of a regenerator, the
trade-off between fuel savings and regenerator
cost must be weighed.
We define the regenerator effectiveness regen as the ratio of the heat transferred to
the compressor gases in the regenerator to the maximum possible heat transfer to
the compressor gases.
qregen , act h5 h2
qregen , max h5' h2 h4 h2
qregen , act h5 h2
regen
qregen , max h4 h2
49
For ideal gases using the cold-air-standard assumption with constant specific heats,
the regenerator effectiveness becomes
T5 T2
regen
T4 T2
Using the closed cycle analysis and treating the heat addition and heat rejection as
steady-flow processes, the regenerative cycle thermal efficiency is
qout
h th , regen 1
qin
h h
1 6 1
h3 h5
Notice that the heat transfer occurring within the regenerator is not included in the
efficiency calculation because this energy is not heat transferred across the cycle
boundary.
Assuming an ideal regenerator regen = 1 and constant specific heats, the thermal
efficiency becomes (take the time to show this on your own)
50
When does the efficiency of the air-standard Brayton cycle equal the efficiency of the
air-standard regenerative Brayton cycle? If we set hth,Brayton = hth,regen then
Recall that this is the pressure ratio that maximizes the net work for the simple
Brayton cycle and makes T4 = T2. What happens if the regenerative Brayton cycle
operates at a pressure ratio larger than this value?
51
For fixed T3 and T1, pressure ratios greater than this value cause T4 to be less than
T2, and the regenerator is not effective.
The following shows a plot of the regenerative Brayton cycle efficiency as a function
of the pressure ratio and minimum to maximum temperature ratio, T1/T3.
52
Example 9-3: Regenerative Brayton Cycle
Air enters the compressor of a regenerative gas-turbine engine at 100 kPa and 300 K
and is compressed to 800 kPa. The regenerator has an effectiveness of 65 percent,
and the air enters the turbine at 1200 K. For a compressor efficiency of 75 percent
and a turbine efficiency of 86 percent, determine
(a) The heat transfer in the regenerator.
(b) The back work ratio.
(c) The cycle thermal efficiency.
Compare the results for the above cycle with the ones listed below that have the
same common data as required. The actual cycles are those for which the turbine
and compressor isentropic efficiencies are less than one.
(a) The actual cycle with no regeneration, = 0.
(b) The actual cycle with ideal regeneration, = 1.0.
(c) The ideal cycle with regeneration, = 0.65.
(d) The ideal cycle with no regeneration, = 0.
(e) The ideal cycle with ideal regeneration, = 1.0.
We assume air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, that is, we use the cold-
air-standard assumption.
53
The cycle schematic is the same as above and the T-s diagram showing the effects of
compressor and turbine efficiencies is below.
800 kPa
100 kPa
T
5
2a 4a
2s 4s
6
54
Summary of Results
55
Compressor analysis
The conservation of energy for the turbine, process 3-4, yields for constant specific
heats (let’s take a minute for you to get the following result)
Wturb m (h3 h4 a )
Wturb mC
p (T3 T4 a )
Wturb
wturb C p (T3 T4 a )
m
57
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we can find the isentropic temperature at the turbine exit.
( k 1) / k
T4 s P4
T3 P3
( k 1) / k
P4 100kPa (1.41) /1.4
T4 s T3 1200 K ( ) 662.5K
P3 800kPa
To find the actual temperature at turbine exit, T4a, we apply the turbine efficiency.
wact , turb h3 h4 a T3 T4 a
h turb
wisen , turb h3 h4 s T3 T4 s
T4 a T3 h turb (T3 T4 s )
1200 K 0.86(1200 662.5) K
737.7 K T2 a
58
The turbine work becomes
wturb h3 h4 a C p (T3 T4 a )
kJ
1005
. (1200 737.7) K
kg K
kJ
464.6
kg
The back work ratio is defined as
win wcomp
BWR
wout wturb
kJ
326.2
kg
0.70
kJ
464.6
kg
59
Regenerator analysis
60
To find the heat transferred from the turbine exhaust gas to the compressor exit gas,
apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the compressor gas side of the
regenerator.
m 2 a h2 a Q regen m 5h5
m 2 a m 5 m
Q regen
qregen h5 h2 a
m
C p (T5 T2 a )
kJ
1005
. . 624.6) K
(6981
kg K
kJ
73.9
kg
61
Using qregen, we can determine the turbine exhaust gas temperature at the
regenerator exit.
m4 a h4 a Qregen m6 h6
m4 a m6 m
Qregen
qregen h4 a h6 C p (T4 a T6 )
m
kJ
73.9
qregen kg
T6 T4 a 737.7 K
Cp kJ
1.005
kg K
664.2 K
62
Heat supplied to cycle
Apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the heat exchanger for process 5-3.
We obtain a result similar to that for the simple Brayton cycle.
qin h3 h5 C p (T3 T5 )
kJ
1005
. (1200 6981
. )K
kg K
kJ
504.4
kg
Cycle thermal efficiency
You are encouraged to complete the calculations for the other values found in the
summary table.
64
Gas Turbines with Reheat and Regeneration (1 of 3)
►A modification of the Brayton cycle that increases
the net work developed is multistage expansion
with reheat.
►The figure shows a cycle with two turbine stages
and a reheat combustor between the stages.
Gas Turbines with Reheat and Regeneration (2 of 3)
►The ideal Brayton cycle with reheat is 1-2-3-a-b-4-1.
The ideal Brayton cycle without reheat is 1-2-3-4′-1.
►The reheat cycle has a larger enclosed area than
the cycle without reheat and thus a greater net work
developed per unit of mass flowing, which is the aim.
Cycle without reheat
T4
T4′
Gas Turbines with
Intercooling and Regeneration (1 of 5)
►Another modification of the Brayton cycle that
increases the net work developed is compression
with intercooling.
►The figure shows two compressor stages and an
intercooler between the stages.
Gas Turbines with
Intercooling and Regeneration (2 of 5)
►The accompanying p-v diagram
shows the processes for internally
reversible operation:
►Process 1-c. Isentropic
compression from state 1, where
pressure is p1, to state c, where
pressure is pi.
►Process c-d. Constant-pressure
cooling from temperature Tc to
temperature Td.
►Process d-2. Isentropic
compression to state 2, where
pressure is p2.
►Isentropic compression without intercooling is
represented by process 1-c-2′.
Gas Turbines with
Intercooling and Regeneration (3 of 5)
►Recalling that for such internally reversible processes the
work input per unit of mass flowing is given by ∫vdp, the
following area interpretations apply, each per unit of mass
flowing:
►With intercooling, area 1-c-d-2-a-b-1
represents the work input.
►Without intercooling, area 1-2′-a-b-1
represents the work input.
►The cross-hatched area c-d-2-2′-c
represents the reduction in work
achieved with intercooling.
►If the total turbine work remains the same, a reduction in
compressor work results in an increase in the net work
developed, which is the aim.
Gas Turbines with
Intercooling and Regeneration (4 of 5)
►While compression with and without intercooling each
bring the air to the same final pressure, p2, the final
temperature with intercooling, T2, is lower than the final
temperature without intercooling, T2′.
►Comparing states 2 and 2′ on the T-s diagram, T2 < T2′.
►The lower temperature at the compressor exit with
intercooling enhances the potential for regeneration.
T2′
T2
Gas Turbines with
Intercooling and Regeneration (5 of 5)
►When compression with intercooling is used together with
regeneration, the thermal efficiency can increase significantly
over that for the cycle without intercooling.
►The T-s diagram also shows that for cooling to the
surroundings the temperature Td at the intercooler exit
cannot be less than T1, the temperature of the air entering
the compressor from the surroundings: Td ≥ T1.
Td
T1
Intercooling
When using multistage compression, cooling the working fluid between the stages
will reduce the amount of compressor work required. The compressor work is
reduced because cooling the working fluid reduces the average specific volume of
the fluid and thus reduces the amount of work on the fluid to achieve the given
pressure rise.
For the adiabatic, steady-flow compression process, the work input to the compressor
per unit mass is
4 3 0
2 4
wcomp = v dP = v dP v dP v dP
1 3
1 2
73
For the isentropic compression process
k k
wcomp = ( P2 v2 Pv1 1) ( P4 v4 P3v3 )
k -1 k -1
k kR
R(T2 T1 ) (T4 T3 )
k -1 k -1
k
R T1 (T2 / T1 1) T3 (T4 / T3 1)
k -1
k P2
( k 1) / k
P4
( k 1) / k
R T1 1 T3 1
k -1 P1 P3
Notice that the fraction kR/(k-1) = Cp.
Can you obtain this relation another way? Hint: apply the first law to processes 1-4.
74
For two-stage compression, let’s assume that intercooling takes place at constant
pressure and the gases can be cooled to the inlet temperature for the compressor,
such that P3 = P2 and T3 = T1.
To find the unknown pressure P2 that gives the minimum work input for fixed
compressor inlet conditions T1, P1, and exit pressure P4, we set
dwcomp ( P2 )
0
dP2
75
This yields
P2 P1 P4
or, the pressure ratios across the two compressors are equal.
P2 P4 P4
P1 P2 P3
Intercooling is almost always used with regeneration. During intercooling the
compressor final exit temperature is reduced; therefore, more energy must be
supplied in the heat addition process to achieve the maximum temperature of the
cycle. Regeneration can make up part of the required heat transfer.
To supply only compressed air, using intercooling requires less work input. The next
time you go to a home supply store where air compressors are sold, check the larger
air compressors to see if intercooling is used. For the larger air compressors, the
compressors are made of two piston-cylinder chambers. The intercooling heat
exchanger is often a pipe with a attached fins that connects the large piston-cylinder
chamber with the smaller piston-cylinder chamber. Often the fly wheel used to drive
the compressor has spokes shaped like fan blades that are used to increase air flow
across the compressor and heat exchanger pipe to improve the intercooling effect.
76
Shown here is a two-stage, 7.5 hp air compressor with intercooling.
Photo by M. Boles 77
Regenerative Gas Turbine
with Reheat and Intercooling (1 of 3)
►Shown here is a regenerative gas turbine that
incorporates reheat and intercooling.
►With these modifications to the basic Brayton cycle:
►The net work
output is
increased.
►The thermal
efficiency is
increased.
Regenerative Gas Turbine
with Reheat and Intercooling (2 of 3)
►Applying mass and energy rate
balances at steady state, we
obtain the following expressions,
each per unit of mass flowing:
►Total turbine work:
W t
= (h6 – h7) + (h8 – h9) = ht1(h6 – h7s) + ht2(h8 – h9s)
m
where ht1 and ht2 denote the isentropic efficiencies of turbines 1 and 2,
respectively.
►Total compressor work:
W c
= (h2 – h1) + (h4 – h3) = (h2s – h1)/hc1 + (h4s – h3)/hc2
m
where hc1 and hc2 denote the isentropic efficiencies of compressors 1
and 2, respectively.
Regenerative Gas Turbine
with Reheat and Intercooling (3 of 3)
►Applying mass and energy rate
balances at steady state, we
obtain the following expressions,
each per unit of mass flowing:
►Total heat added:
Q in
= (h6 – h5) + (h8 – h7)
m
►In this application, the regenerator effectiveness is:
hreg = (h5 – h4)/(h9 – h4)
►For cooling to the surroundings, the temperature at the
exit of the intercooler, T3, cannot be less than the
temperature of the air entering the compressor from the
surroundings: T3 ≥ T1.
Gas Turbine-Based Combined Cycle
►The exhaust temperature of the simple gas turbine
is typically well above the ambient temperature, and
thus the hot gas exiting the turbine has significant
thermodynamic utility (exergy) that can be used cost-
effectively.
►Ways to utilize this potential include:
►The regenerative cycle previously considered.
►A combined cycle – namely, a cycle that
couples two power cycles such that the energy
discharged by heat transfer from the higher-
temperature cycle is used as a heat input for the
lower-temperature cycle.
Combined Gas Turbine-Vapor Power Cycle (1 of 2)
►Illustrated here is a combined cycle
involving gas and vapor power cycles:
►The cycles are combined using an
interconnecting heat-recovery
steam generator that serves as the
boiler for the vapor power cycle.
►The combined cycle has the gas
turbine’s high average temperature of
heat addition and the vapor power
cycle’s low average temperature of
heat rejection.
►Thermal efficiency is greater than
either cycle would have individually.
►Increasingly, combined gas turbine-vapor power plants are
being used world-wide for electric power generation.
Combined Gas Turbine-Vapor Power Cycle (2 of 2)
►The net power developed by the
combined cycle is the sum of the net
power developed by each cycle.
►The thermal efficiency of the
combined cycle is the net power
output divided by the rate of heat
addition.
(Eq. 9.28)
Va V5
Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion (2 of 8)
►The increase in velocity from diffuser inlet, Va, to nozzle
exit, V5, gives rise to the thrust developed by the engine
in accord with Newton’s second law of motion (Eq. 9.31).
►In harmony with air-standard analysis, we assume air
modeled as an ideal gas flows through the engine shown
in the schematic and the temperature rise that would be
obtained with combustion is achieved by heat transfer
from an external source.
Va V5
Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion (3 of 8)
►If the air flows through the components of the turbojet engine
without irreversibilities and stray heat transfer, air undergoes
the five processes shown on the T-s diagram:
►Process a-1: Air at velocity Va enters the diffuser and
decelerates isentropically, while experiencing an increase in
pressure.
►Process 1-2: The air experiences a further increase in
pressure isentropically, owing to work done by the compressor.
Va V5
Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion (4 of 8)
►If the air flows through the components of the turbojet engine
without irreversibilities and stray heat transfer, air undergoes
the five processes shown on the T-s diagram:
►Process 2-3: The temperature of the air increases at constant
pressure as it receives a heat transfer from an external source.
►Process 3-4: The high-pressure, high-temperature air
expands isentropically through the turbine, driving the
compressor.
Va V5
Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion (5 of 8)
►If the air flows through the components of the turbojet engine
without irreversibilities and stray heat transfer, air undergoes
the five processes shown on the T-s diagram:
►Process 4-5: The air continues to expand isentropically
through the nozzle, achieving a velocity, V5, at the engine exit
much greater than the velocity, Va, at the engine inlet, and
thereby developing thrust.
Va V5
Review: Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling
►The one-inlet, one-exit energy rate balance at
steady state reads:
(V 2
V 2
)
0 Q cv W cv m (hi he ) i e
g ( zi z e )
2