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PROSTHODONTICS
PRESENTED BY-
DR.KELLY NORTON
POST GRADUATE STUDENT
DEPT. OF PROSTHODONTICS
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INTRODUCTION
What is an alloy?
A mixture of two or more metals or metalloids that are mutually
soluble in the molten state; distinguished as binary, ternary,
quaternary, etc., depending on the number of metals within the
mixture
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HISTORY
Year Event
1907 Introduction of Lost-Wax Technique
1933 Replacement of Co-Cr for Gold in Removable Partial Dentures
1950 Development of Resin Veneers for Gold Alloys
1959 Introduction of the Porcelain Fused-to-Metal Technique
1968 Palladium-Based Alloys as Alternatives to Gold Alloy
1971 Nickel-Based Alloys as Alternatives to Gold Alloys
1980s Introduction of All-Ceramic Technologies
1999 Gold Alloys as Alternatives to Palladium-Based Alloys
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METALS
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SOLIDIFICATION
AND
CRYSTALLIZATION OF
METALS
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SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS 6
SUPERCOOLING
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COOLING PATTERN OF A LIQUID METAL
DURING SOLIDIFICATION
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To increase 12
hardness and
strength.
To provide special
electrical and magnetic To increase fluidity
properties. of liquid metal
In the molten state metals usually show mutual solubility, one within another.
When the molten mixture is cooled to below the melting point the component
metals may remain soluble in each other forming a solid solution.
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PHASE DIAGRAM FOR ALLOYS
A phase is a state of matter that is distinct in some way from the matter around it.
Phase diagrams are maps of the phases that occur when metals are mixed together.
The x axis -------- composition of element
The y axis -------- temperature of the alloy system.
shows the composition and types of phases at a given temperature and at equilibrium.
Every phase diagrams divides an alloy system into at least three areas :the liquid phase, the liquid
–solid phase and solid phase.
If a series of cooling curves for alloys of different composition within a given alloy system are available
a phase diagram can be constructed from which many important predictions regarding coring and other
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structural variations can be made.
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SILVER PALLADIUM SYSTEM
Liquidus
temp
Solidus
temp
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CORING
For solid solution alloys a cored structure exists in which the first
material to crystallize is rich in the metal with the higher melting
point (A), whilst the last material to solidify is rich in the other metal
(B)
An indication of the degree of coring is given by the separation of
the solidus and liquidus lines on the phase diagram.
With slow cooling the crystallization process is accompanied by
diffusion and a random distribution of atoms results, with no coring.
Rapid cooling quickly denies the alloy the energy and mobility
required for diffusion of atoms to occur and the cored structure is
‘locked in’ at low temperatures.
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HOMOGENIZATION
This involves heating the alloy to a temperature just below the solidus temperature for a few
minutes to allow diffusion of atoms and the establishment of an homogeneous structure and
then normally quenched in order to prevent grain growth from occurring.
A, Copper-silver alloy
(1%) as cast.
B, The same cast
alloy after
homogenization heat
treatment
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SILVER-COPPER SYSTEM:
EUTECTIC ALLOYS
The eutectic alloy is one in which the
components exhibit complete solubility in
the liquid state but limited solid solubility
The term eutectic means lowest melting
point.
In silver copper system ----
M.P. silver is around 960.5°C and that of
copper is 1083° C.
But that of the eutectic composition is
779.4° C.
Eutectic –alternative layer of alpha
(silver rich)and beta(copper rich) phases. It can be written as :
LIQUID α SOLID SOLUTION + ß SOLID SOLUTION
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INVARIANT TRANSFORMATION- OCCURS AT SINGLE
TEMPERATURE AND COMPOSITION
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• The silver rich alpha solid solution or copper rich beta solid solution are
hard and have higher strength. They are ductile and malleable.
• They have a low melting point and therefore are important as solders.
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2
2
PERITECTIC ALLOYS
Eg: Silver-tin
Silver –platinum
Palladium-ruthenium
INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS
Inter metallic compounds are those when the metals are soluble in the liquid
state but unite and form a chemical compound on solidifying.
Eg ; Ag3 – Sn,
Sn7 – Hg8
They are called inter metallic compounds because the alloy is formed by a
chemical reaction between a metal and metal.
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TYPES HEAT TREATMENT
Technique:
The alloy is heat soaked at temperature between 200 C Ductility
and 450 C for 15-30 minutes and then rapidly cooled by
quenching
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Solid solutions are generally harder, stronger and have higher values of
elastic limit than the pure metals from which they are derived. The
hardening effect, known as solution hardening, is thought to be due to the
fact that atoms of different atomic radii within the same lattice form a
mechanical resistance to the movement of dislocations along slip planes.
Age Hardening : After solution heat treatment, the alloy is once again
heated to bring about further precipitation. This also causes hardening of
the alloy and is known as age hardening because the alloy will maintain its
quality for many years. Ideally, before age hardening an alloy, it should
first be subjected to a softening heat treatment
1) To relieve all strain and 2) starting the age hardening treatment when
the alloy is in a disordered solid solution - allows better control of the
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hardening process
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A heat treatment is sometimes used to eliminate the cored structure. Such a heat
treatment is termed a homogenization heat treatment. Homogenization heat
treatment INCREASES DUCTILITY AND CORROSION RESISTANCE
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CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOYS
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ALLOY CLASSIFICATION BY 31
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
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(If two metals are present, a binary alloy is formed; if three or four metals
are present, ternary and quaternary alloys, respectively, are produced and
so on.)
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Metallic Elements Used in Dental Alloys
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NOBLE METALS
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GOLD
Pure gold --soft, malleable, ductile, rich yellow color, strong metallic
luster. • Density 19.3 g/cm3
Lowest in strength and surface hardness.
• Melting point
Highest ductility, malleability and high density 1063oc
High level of corrosion and tarnish resistance • Boiling point of
2970oc
High melting point, low C.O.T.E value and very good conductivity
• KHN 25
Improves workability, burnish ability, raises the density .
• CTE of 14.2×10-6/°c.
Alloyed with copper, silver, platinum, and other metals to develop the
hardness, durability, and elasticity
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Gold content:
Traditionally the gold content of dental casting alloys have been referred to in terms
of:
Carat:
The term carat refers only to the gold content of the alloy; a carat represents a 1⁄24
part of the whole. Thus 24 carat indicates pure gold. The carat of an alloy is
designated by a small letter k, for example, 18k or 22k gold.
Fineness:
Fineness also refers only to the gold content, and represents the number of parts of
gold in each 1000 parts of alloy. Thus 24k gold is the same as 100% gold or 1000
fineness (i.e., 1000 fine) or an 18k gold would be designated as 750 fine.
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Silver
Lowers the melting range
Foods containing sulfur compounds cause severe tarnish on silver, boiling point 2216 oC
and for this reason silver is not considered a noble metal in
dentistry. CTE 19.710-6/oC ,
Pure silver is not used in dental restorations because of the black
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sulfide that forms on the metal in the mouth.
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Platinum
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Palladium
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Iridium and Ruthenium
Cobalt
• CTE 13.810-6/oC
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Nickel
Chosen base for porcelain alloys because its COTE
approximates that of gold
CTE 13.310-6/oC
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Chromium
passivating effect
Chromium content is directly proportional to
tarnish and corrosion resistance.
solid solution hardening.
It has melting point of 1875°C
boiling point of 2665 °C
density of 7.19 gm/cm3
CTE 6.210-6/ oC
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Copper
principal hardener.
reduces the melting point and density of gold.
gives the alloy a reddish colour.
It also helps to age harden gold alloys.
In greater amounts it reduces resistance to tarnish and
corrosion of the gold alloy. Therefore, the maximum
content should NOT exceed 16%.
• effective hardener
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Beryllium
hardening agent
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Gallium
Added to silver-free porcelain alloys to compensate for
the decreased COTE created by the removal of silver.
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Indium
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CARBON:
CTE 6 10-6/oC .
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BORON
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PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS: 57
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DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF DENTAL
CASTING ALLOYS
They must not tarnish and corrode in the mouth.
They must be biocompatible (nontoxic and nonallergic).
Alloys for bridgework require higher strength than alloys for single crowns. Alloys for metal-
ceramic prostheses are finished in thin sections and require sufficient stiffness to prevent excessive
elastic deflection from functional forces, especially when they are used for long-span frameworks.
They must be easy to melt, cast, cut and grind (easy to fabricate).
The melting range of the casting alloys must be low enough to form smooth surfaces with the mold
wall of the casting investment.
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For metal ceramic prostheses, the alloys must have closely matching thermal
expansion coefficients to be compatible with given porcelains, and they must
tolerate high processing temperatures without deforming via a creep process.
They must flow well and duplicate fine details during casting.
They must have minimal shrinkage on cooling after casting.
They must be easy to solder.
To achieve a sound chemical bond to ceramic veneering materials, the alloy must
be able to form a thin adherent oxide, preferably one that is light in color so that
it does not interfere with the esthetic potential of the ceramic.
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ALLOYS FOR ALL-METAL PROSTHESES
- HIGH NOBLE AND NOBLEALLOYS
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Gold-Based Alloys
These alloys are generally yellow in color.
Type 1 gold alloys are soft and designed for
inlays supported by teeth and not subjected to
significant mastication forces.
Type 2 alloys are widely used for inlays because
of their superior mechanical properties, but they
have less ductility than type 1 alloys.
Type 3 alloys are used for constructing crowns
and onlays for high-stress areas. Increasing the
Pt or Pd content raises the melting temperature,
which is beneficial when components are to be
joined by soldering (or brazing).
Type 4 gold alloys are used in high-stress areas
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such as bridges and partial denture frameworks.
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MECHANICAL INTERLOCKING
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THERMAL COMPATIBILITY
When the co efficient of thermal expansion of metal and porcelain are incompatible the
tensile stress that develop during cooling are sufficient to cause immediate cracking of
porcelain or delayed cracking after cooling at room temperature.
Porcelains have coefficient of thermal expansion between 13.0 and 14.0 X 10-6 and
metal between 13.5 and 14.5 X 10-6.
The difference of 0.5 X10-6 in thermal expansion between metal and porcelain causes
the metal to contract slightly more than does the ceramic during cooling after firing the
porcelain
The C.O.T.E of alloys is decreased by adding platinum or palladium.
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HIGH NOBLE AND
NOBLE ALLOYS
Most alloys contain palladium, whose high
melting point improves sag resistance
during firing, and whose thermal contraction
coefficient is lower than that of silver, gold,
and platinum, which is helpful in developing
lightweight metal-ceramic alloys that are
compatible with currently used dental
ceramics.
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The Gold-Platinum-Palladium
(Au-Pt-Pd) System:
This is one of the oldest metal ceramic
alloy system. But these alloys are not
used widely today because they are
very expensive.
These alloys have adequate elastic
modulus, strength, hardness, and
elongation but are low in sag
resistance.
Therefore, they should be limited to
crowns and three-unit FDPs.
Their use has decreased over time,
since more economical alloys have
been developed with significantly
better mechanical properties and sag
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resistance.
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Gold-Palladium-Silver Alloys
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PALLADIUM-SILVER ALLOYS
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PALLADIUM BASED ALLOYS
PALLADIUM-COPPER ALLOYS
PALLADIUM-GALLIUM ALLOYS
Composition
Composition
Palladium 74 to 80 wt%
Palladium 75 wt%
Copper 5 to 10 wt%
Gallium 6 wt%
Gallium 4 to 9 wt%
Silver 5 to 8 wt%
Gold 1 to 2 wt% (in some brands)
Gold 6 wt%(when present) PALLADIUM-COBALTALLOYS Base metals around 1 wt%
Base metals around 1 wt% Composition
Esthetics – oxide layer is lighter than Palladium 78 to 88 wt% Esthetics –
Pd Cu and Pd Co alloys Cobalt 4 to 10 wt% Copper -causes slight discoloration,
Gallium up to 9 wt% (in some brands) darker brown black oxide layer
Base metal around 1 wt%
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GENERAL PROPERTIES OF NICKEL BASEDALLOYS
Cost: cheapest
Colour: white
Melting range: 1155 to 1304° c high
Density: 7.8 to 8.4 gm/cm3
Hardness and workability: 175 to 360 VHN, much harder than high noble metal ceramic
alloys, hardness makes them very difficult to cut grind and polish, more chair time, high
hardness results in rapid wear of carbide and diamond burs
Yield strength: 310 to 828 Mpa, stronger
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Tarnish and corrosion resistance: highly resistant, this is due to the property known as
passivation.
passivation is the resistant oxide layer on surface of chrome containing alloys
Soldering: base metal alloys much more difficult to solder than gold alloys
Casting shrinkage: higher casting shrinkage than gold alloys, greater mould expansion is
to compensate for inadequate compensation for casting shrinkage
Etching: the alloy's surface can etched electrochemically to create micromechanical
retention for resin-bonded FPD’s (Maryland Bridges).
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NICKEL-CHROMIUM (NI-CR) ALLOYS
used for complete crown and all metal fixed partial denture prosthesis
major constituents - nickel -61 to 71 %
chromium – 11 to 27 %
The system contains two major groups:
-Beryllium free (class 1)
-Beryllium (class 2)
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NICKEL CHROMIUM ALLOYS
Composition
Basic elements ADVANTAGES
• Low cost
Nickel : 61 To 81 Wt% • Low Density permits more castings
: 11 To 27 Wt% • High sag resistance
Chromium
• Poor thermal conductor
Molybdenum : 2 To 9 Wt% • Can be etched
The minor additions include
DISADVANTAGES
Beryllium : 0.5 To 2.0 Wt%
• Cannot be used with nickel-sensitive
Aluminum : 0.2 To 4.2 Wt% patients
Iron : 0.1 To 0.5 Wt% • Beryllium exposure may be
Silicon : 0.2 To 2.8 Wt% potentially harmful
Copper : 0.1 To 1.6 Wt% • Bond failure more common in oxide
Manganese : 0.1 To 3.0 Wt% layer
Cobalt : 0.4 To 0.5 Wt% • High hardness, may wear opposing
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Tin : 1.25 wt% tooth
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NICKEL-CHROMIUM BERYLLIUM FREE ALLOYS
Composition:
Nickel – 62% to 77% Advantages
1. Do not contain beryllium
Chromium – 11% to 22% 2. Low cost .
Boron , iron, molybdenum, Niobium or columbium 3. Low density means more
and tantalum (trace elements). casting alloys
Disadvantages
1.Cannot use with Nickel sensitive patients.
2.Cannot be etched.(Cr doesn’t dissolve in
acids)
3. May not cast as well as Ni-Cr-Be per
ounce
4. Produces more oxide than Ni-Cr-Be
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Comparative properties of Ni / Cr alloys and type III casting gold alloys for
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small cast restorations
Property (Units) Ni/Cr Type III gold Comments
alloy
Density (g/cm3) 8 15 More difficult to produce defect free casting
for Ni/Cr alloys.
Fusion temperature As high as Normally lower Ni/Cr alloys require electrical induction
1350°C than 1000°C furnace or oxyacetylene equipment.
Casting shrinkage (%) 2 1.4 Mostly compensated for by correct choice of
investment
Tensile strength (MPa) 600 540 Both adequate for the applications being
considered.
Proportional limit 230 290 Both high enough to prevent distortion for
(MPa) applications being considered; not that values
are lower than for partial denture alloys
Modulus of elasticity 220 85 Higher modulus of Ni/Cr is an advantage for
(GPa) large restoration e.g. bridges and for porcelain
bonded restoration.
Hardness (VHN) 300 150 Ni/Cr more difficult to polish but retains polish
during service
Ductility upto 30% 20 (as cast) Relatively large values suggest that burnishing
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(% elongation) 10 (hardened) is possible; however, large proportional limit
value suggests higher forces would be require.
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Commercially Pure Titanium
CP Ti is often selected for its excellent corrosion resistance, especially in applications for which high
strength is not required.
CP Ti has a hexagonal closepacked (HCP) crystal lattice, which is denoted as the alpha (α)phase.
On heating, an allotropic phase transformation occurs. At 883° C, a body-centered cubic(BCC)
phase, which is denoted as the beta (β) phase, forms.
A component with predominantly β phase is stronger but more brittle than a component with α-phase
microstructure
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Titanium Alloys
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ADVANTAGES of titanium
High strength
Light weight
Bioinert
Low tarnish and corrosion because of ability to passivate
Can be laser welded
Limited thermal conductivity
DISADVANTAGES
Highly technique sensitive
Require expensive machines for casting and machining
Low fusing porcelains required to prevent beta phase transformation
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REMOVABLE DENTURE ALLOYS
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COBALT-CHROMIUM ALLOYS
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RECENT ALLOYS
This study assessed the characteristics of cast clasps made of titanium and titanium alloys
to determine whether these materials are suitable alternatives for removable partial denture
applications.
Removable partial denture clasps at two undercut depths were fabricated from
commercially pure titanium, titanium alloy (Ti-6A1-4V), and cobalt-chromium.
Results showed that for the 0.75 mm undercut specimens, there was less loss of retention
for clasps made from pure titanium and titanium alloy than for cobalt-chromium clasps.
Porosity was more apparent in the pure titanium and titanium alloy clasps than in those
made from cobalt-chromium.
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Microstructure, elemental composition, hardness and crystal 103
structure study of the interface between a noble implant
component and cast noble alloys.
The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry. 2011;106(3):170-178.
Casting a high-gold alloy to a wrought prefabricated noble implant-component increases the cost
of an implant. Selecting a less expensive noble alloy would decrease implant treatment costs.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the interfacial regions of a representative noble
implant component and cast noble dental alloys and to evaluate the effects of porcelain firing
cycles on the interface.
Six representative alloys gold-platinum-palladium (Aquarius XH), gold-platinum (Brite Gold
XH), gold-palladium (IPS d.SIGN 91), palladium-silver (IPS d.SIGN 59), and palladium-silver-
gold (Capricorn 15) systems and ANSI/ADA Type IV (non-ceramic) gold alloy were cast togold
implant abutments (ComOcta).
Less expensive reduced-gold and palladium alloy alternatives provided comparable results to
high-gold alloys for joint quality. Consequently, such noble metal alternatives to high gold alloys
for conventional partial fixed dental prostheses might provide clinically acceptable implant
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superstructures.
The Release of Elements from the Base Metal Alloys in a Protein 104
Containing Biologic Environments and Artificial Saliva – An InvitroStudy
JCDR. 2016;
This study aims to determine whether the solution in which an alloy is submerged and the
exposure time have any effect on the amount of release of elements from the Ni-Cr and Co-Cr
alloys.
A total of 126 specimens were made from the Ni-Cr alloy and 42 specimens were made from Co-
Cr alloy. Dissolution experiments were carried out in Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) and artificial
saliva for a period of seven weeks and atomic absorption spectrophotometer was used for
elemental analysis.
Results: The release of elements from the Ni-Cr alloy showed the predominant release of Cr.
Conclusion: The protein containing solution showed maximum release of elements fromNi-Cr
and Co-Cr alloys. The elements that released from the alloys never reached their threshold for
toxic effects. Hence these alloys can be safely used in fabrication of metal restorations without
any ill effects
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Evaluation of effect of galvanic corrosion between nickel-chromium
metal and titanium on ion release and cell toxicity.
The Journal of Advanced Prosthodontics. 2015;7(2):172.
.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the metal ion release
caused by electrochemical corrosion due to contact between metals
and to assess the cell toxicity effect.
A prosthesis was made of a base metal on the titanium abutment
using three types of Ni-Cr alloys with different components and
compositions.
The amount of metal ions released was increased by galvanic
corrosion in all of the groups in which Ni-Cr alloys were in contact
with titanium.
Cytotoxicity was significantly increased in all of the groups in which
Ni-Cr alloys were in contact with titanium as compared to that in the
group in which Ni-Cr alloys were not in contact with titanium.
A large amount of ions were released and high cytotoxicity was
observed in the Ni-Be alloy with a relatively low corrosion
resistance.
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Effect of PFM Firing Cycles on the Mechanical Properties, Phase 106
Composition, and Microstructure of Nickel-ChromiumAlloy.
Journal of Prosthodontics. 2015;24(8):634-641.
The purpose of this study was to compare the mechanical properties of beryllium-free
nickel-chromium (Ni-Cr) dental casting alloy before and after each porcelain firing cycle
(once fired, twice fired, and thrice fired) and to relate these properties to the microstructural
changes and changes in X-ray diffraction patterns of Ni-Cr alloy that occur after each
porcelain firing cycle.
Results showed that After each firing cycle, there was a significant (p < 0.001) decrease in
ultimate strength , 0.1% yield strength, and hardness and significant (p < 0.001) increase
in elongation value of Ni-Cr alloy. The microstructure of the control group specimen
exhibited heterogeneous microstructure, and after each firing, microstructure of the alloy
was gradually homogenized by formation of grain boundaries at the interdendritic
interfaces.
Results of this study confirmed that nickel-based alloys become weaker after each firing
process. After firing treatment, the microstructure of alloys showed decreased strengthand
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hardness of Ni-Cr alloy.
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EACH ALLOY SYSTEM HAS ITS OWN PROS AND CONS AND IS DEVELOPED
FOR A SPECIFIC APPLICATION IN DENTISTRY OVERCOMING THE
DRAWBACKS OF ITS PREDECESSORS
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REFERENCES
1. Phillips' Science Of Dental Materials, 12th Edition Anusavice & Shen &Rawls
2. Craig’s Restorative Dental Materials / Edited By Ronald L. Sakaguchi, John M. Powers. -- 13th Ed.
3. Dental Materials And Their Selection - 3rd Ed. (2002) By William J.O'brien
4. Applied Dental Materials –Mccabbes And Walls- 9th Ed.
5. Science of Dental Materials- Clinical Application – V Shama Bhat & B.T Nandish
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CROSS REFERENCES
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