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Concepts
Jonathan Rose
Planning Engineer
Resource Integration Department
Oklaunion
WillowCrk
Long Draw
Navarro
SamSw
Killeen
4
Kendall
Why use Series compensation?
• Increase the power flow by reducing the line impedance
• Improve the dynamic stability of the grid (by increasing the
area under the power angle curve)
• Reduce voltage variation
• Relieve transmission bottlenecks
• Increases capacity
• Self-regulating
(reactive power generated
proportional to flow squared)
Example of Benefit of Series Compensation
Scenario 1: Uncompensated Case
1.1
Voltage [pu]
1.05
0.95
Mid Line Caps Sending End Caps
0.9
0 20 40 60 80 100
% Line Length from Receiving End
Line voltage profile for series capacitors at the end and middle of a line
Presentation Outline
• What are series capacitors?
• What is SSR?
• What causes SSR?
• Simultaneous outages.
• Understanding risk exposure.
• Mitigating and Protecting
against SSR risk.
• What has ERCOT been doing?
Sub-Synchronous Resonance (SSR)
• Resonance: The tendency of a system under excitation to oscillate
at certain frequencies.
Good
Resonance Bad Resonance
Shunt Capacitors
~
Inductive Capacitive
Generators,
Inductors, Load
Shunt Capacitors
Series capacitors
~
Inductive Capacitive
Generators,
Inductors, Load
D. Baker, G. Boukarim, “Subsynchronous Resonance Studies and Mitigation Methods for Series Capacitor Applications,” IEEE 2005.
D. Walker, D. Hodges, “Results of Subsynchronous Resonance Test At Mohave,” IEEE 1975.
Presentation Outline
• What are series capacitors?
• What is SSR?
• What causes SSR?
• Simultaneous outages.
• Understanding risk exposure.
• Mitigating and Protecting
against SSR risk.
• What has ERCOT been doing?
SSR Manifestations
• Different situations can cause SSR
• Torsional Interaction (TI)
– Electrical resonance frequency of system close to natural torsional resonance frequency of
mechanical system. Can result in shaft failure. Usually takes several seconds.
• Transient Torque
– Electrical resonance frequency of system close to natural torsional resonance frequency of
mechanical system, however adequate damping prevents growing oscillations. Can result in
shaft fatigue.
• Induction Generator Effect (IGE)
– Purely electrical phenomenon; no mechanical component. Affects wind and fossil generators.
– Self excitation because synchronous motor circuit acts like an induction generator at
subsynchronous frequencies. The effective slip can cause negative resistance, hence negative
damping. Can result in rapidly growing currents or voltages.
• Subsynchronous Control Interaction (SSCI)
– Control system of power electronic device (e.g. HVDC, wind farms, or SVC) has an unintended
resonant point close to the system electrical resonance.
– Result: Rapidly growing currents or voltages.
P.M. Amderspm, B.L. Agrawal, “Sybsynchronous Resonance in Power Systems.” IEEE Press, 1990.
South Texas SSCI Event (2009)
• Series capacitors installed on long 345 kV lines to allow full
loading.
• 1,000 MW of wind farms connected to Ajo. Many are Type III.
345 kV series
compensated lines
South Texas SSCI Event (2009)
• A fault occurred on the Ajo to Nelson Sharpe line due to a
downed static wire.
• Fault cleared in 2.5 cycles by opening this line.
• The wind farms were then radially connected to the Ajo to Rio
Hondo series compensated transmission line.
• The Doubly-Fed Induction Generators (DFIG) controlled by a
voltage source converter introduces negative damping.
• Undamped oscillations at 22 Hz.
• Voltages reacted approximately 2.0 pu in ~150 ms.
• The series capacitors bypassed approximately 1.5 seconds.
• Damage to wind generators and series capacitors occurred.
From AEP presentation by Paul Hassink, “Sub-synchronous Control Interaction,” Utility Wind Integration Group Spring Workshop April 15, 2011
Also: http://www.elforsk.se/Global/Vindforsk/Konferenser/HF_symposium_111206/Gotia_Power_V309_subsynchronus_resonence.pdf
Fault Recorder, South Texas Event
Slide from AEP presentation by Paul Hassink, “Sub-synchronous Control Interaction,” Utility Wind Integration Group Spring Workshop April 15, 2011.
Presentation Outline
• What are series capacitors?
• What is SSR?
• What causes SSR?
• Simultaneous outages.
• Understanding risk exposure.
• Mitigating and Protecting
against SSR risk.
• What has ERCOT been doing?
Effect of Outages
• Can increase coupling between a series capacitor and
generator.
• Two outages make the generator at Ogallala radial to
the CTT series capacitors.
Gray
Alibates
Oklaunion
WillowCrk
Long Draw
Effect of Outages
• Five double-circuit outages make Limestone radial to
W.Shackelford – Navarro series compensated line.
• Even with all of these outages, case solves under min load
conditions.
Venus / Watermill
Midlothian
Navarro
Big Brown
Wshackelford - Navarro
Limestone
Twin Oak
Effect of Outages
• Can increase coupling between a series
capacitor and generator.
• Must consider planned and forced outages.
• SSR studies are labor-intensive and do not
lend towards being studied on-demand
• Therefore possible outage combinations must
be studied ahead-of-time by Planning.
• Any generator that is up to FIVE outages away
from being radial to a series capacitor is
subject to SSR study.
Where did N-5 come from?
0.25
Impedance (ohms)
Graph resistance &
0.20
reactance vs. frequency.
0.15
Resistance Look for dips &
0.10
Reactance crossovers. Less accurate
0.05
so designed to be
0.00
5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57
conservative.
-0.05
Frequency (Hz)
• EMT1 Simulation
If frequency scan shows
possible exposure risk,
EMT simulation may be
able to dismiss the
exposure risk. EMT
simulations are more
accurate.
1 Electromagnetic Transient simulation: A time-domain analysis similar to a dynamic or “stability” analysis but capable of
simulating off-nominal frequencies other than 60 Hz. Such simulations generally require more detailed models.
Who’s At Risk? -- General Observations
• More Risk:
– Electrically closer to series capacitors.
– Type III wind farms.
– Long shaft / multi-mass generators (Coal, NG Steam, Combined
Cycle).
• Less Risk:
– Type IV wind farms.
– Type III wind farms with special damping controls.
– Hydro, CTs, reciprocating engines.
– Solar inverters.
– HVDC ties.
• Mitigation
– Involves reducing exposure to SSR risk.
– Generally allows the resource to continue operating, even when outages
place the unit in stronger electrical coupling with a series capacitor.
– In many cases, may completely eliminate risk.
• E.g. Horse Hollow Energy Center installed mitigation which allowed the wind
turbines to operate radially to the series-compensated transmission line
owned by NextEra.
Protection or Mitigation?
Recommend Both!
Mitigating SSR Several options to reduce or eliminate risk.
• Outage coordination
Outage Coordination ERCOT $ Involves avoiding certain outages or bypassing
Suggest 4-square chart:series
(&TSP)
gen vs TSP;
capacitor when they occur. Very effective,
low cost vs high cost. but only practical for mitigating rare conditions (e.g.
• Special Protection Schemes* N-4 or higher). Bypassing manually performed by
operator via SCADA.
• Generator
Special Protection
Schemes
PSS
TSP
tuning $ SPSs are effective but discouraged because they
are difficult to model in studies and may operate
unexpectedly with unintended consequences. Any
• Wind turbine controller adjustments proposals will undergo heavy scrutiny.
Wind Control System Generator $ Upgraded control provides wide-band damping that
• Damping Filters
Upgrades does not need tuning.
Fossil Generator PSS Generator $ May only be effective in certain situations; would
• Thyristor-controlled series
Tuning needcapacitors
restudy when grid changes.
SSR Filters TSP / $$$ Tuning may need adjustment as grid changes.
Tuning can be expensive.
Generator
Thyristor-Controlled TSP $$$ Theoretically very effective but unproven
technology.
Series Caps (TCSC)
Also: Wind developers may select a different turbine model; new fossil plants may modify
generator masses or install amortisseur windings; SVCs outfitted with special control schemes.
Protecting Against SSR
31
[1] D. Baker, G. Boukarim, “Subsynchronous Resonance Studies and Mitigation Methods for Series Capacitor Applications,” IEEE 2005.
[2] P. Anderson, R. Farmer, “Series Compensation of Power Systems.” PBLSH! 1996.
Presentation Outline
• What are series capacitors?
• What is SSR?
• What causes SSR?
• Simultaneous outages.
• Understanding risk exposure.
• Mitigating and Protecting
against SSR risk.
• What has ERCOT been doing?
What about the 2010 CREZ Reactive Study?
• New Wind Generators
– Reactive study tested the effectiveness various mitigations including
bypass filter and TCSC but could not test the effectiveness of upgraded
wind turbine control systems as details on these designs were not
available at the time. Study did not issue a recommendation.
• Existing Generators
– The Reactive study included SSR studies of several existing generators that
were thought might be at risk. Some of the studies confirmed risk and
recommended additional analysis.
– Additional analysis is now being performed. Some generators have been
cleared as ‘no risk’ because better generator data became available and a
more detailed analysis was performed.
– ERCOT has since identified additional generators that require SSR studies.
Many of these studies have already been completed; some are still
ongoing.
Role of ERCOT Planning in SSR
(Existing Resources)
• ERCOT analyzed risk exposure of all existing
power plants.
• For exposed plants,
– Contacted TSP and generator.
– Coordinated study.
– Facilitate resolution.
• Several thermal and wind plants are already
moving towards resolution.
Role of ERCOT Planning in SSR
(New Resources)