Principles of Pavement Design

Pavement structure

Pavement

 is a longitudinal structure which carries vehicular loading.

 provides traffic surface of acceptable riding quality.

 built over a prepared foundation / subgrade.

Pavement Components
 Pavement Type

Surfaced Unsurfaced Unconventional

 Bituminous Pavement  Earth Road  Block Pavements
 Concrete Pavement  Gravel Road  Shell-Filled Pavements
 Moorum Road
Pavement Types - Surfaced

Bituminous Pavement Concrete Pavements

Pavement Types - Unsurfaced

Earth Road Moorum Road Gravel Road

Pavement Types - Unconventional

Block Pavements Shell-Filled Pavements

Pavement Facilities

 Highway Pavements
 Footpath/Walkways
 Loading Yards
 Bus-terminals
 Runways/Airport Pavements.
Pavement Design – A Challenging Task

 Failures of pavement are not catastrophic in nature, they do not fail

spectacularly.

 Complex behavior of material and typical loading condition.

 Collecting information for short - long term performance is troublesome.

Pavement Design – Design Factors
Design Factors can be divided into four broad categories:

1. Traffic & Loading

2. Environment
3. Materials
4. Failure criteria

1. Traffic & Loading:

(i) axle loads,

(ii) no. of load repetitions,
(iii) tire-contact areas, and
(iv) vehicle speeds
Pavement Design – External Parameters

 Embankment Type

 Subgrade Soil

 Drainage Characteristics.
 Pavement Types

Based on the structural behavior, road pavements are generally classified into two
categories
 Flexible Pavement
 Rigid Pavement

Other type of pavement structure include

 Semi-rigid Pavement
 Interlocking Cement Concrete Block Pavement.
However these types of pavements are less common as compare to flexible and
rigid pavement.
Pavement Types

Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

Pavement Types
Component of Pavement Structure
Subgrade Layer

The subgrade can be assumed as Boussinesq half-space which is infinite along x and y
direction and semi-infinite along z (depth) direction. Subgrade whether in cut or fill
should be well compacted to utilize its full strength, compaction in the field is done at a
minimum of 97 per cent of laboratory density at moisture content corresponding to the
optimum moisture content IS: 2720 (Part 8). The standard test procedure described in IS:
2720 (Part 16) should be strictly adhered to determine the CBR value. The subgrade is the
top 500 mm of the embankment immediately below the bottom of the pavement, and is
made up of in-situ material, select soil, or stabilized soil that forms the foundation of a
pavement.
The subgrade must be able to support loads without excessive deformation transmitted
from the pavement structure.
Functions of a sub-base layer are

 To provide additional help to the base and surface courses in

distributing the loads
 To prevent intrusion of fine-grained road-bed soils into the base
 To minimize the damaging effects of frost action
 To facilitate drainage of free water that might get accumulated
below the pavement
Functions of the base course are

 To act as the structural portion of the pavement and thus distribute the loads
 If constructed directly over the sub-grade, to prevent intrusion of subgrade soil
into the pavement.

Functions of a surface course are

 To perform as a structural portion of the pavement

 To resist the abrasive forces of traffic
 To reduce the amount of surface water penetrating the pavement
 To provide s skid-resistance surface
 To provide a smooth and uniform riding surface
Traffic Loads

 Vehicle Type & Load consideration

 Magnitude of Wheel Loads

 Equivalent Single Wheel load

 Numbers & Load Repetitions.

Traffic Loads
Legal Axle load limit in India
Axle load
Single axle: 10.2 T
Gross load Tandem axle : 19 T
Tridem axle : 24 T
Wheel load
Load repetitions

Front Axle Rear Axle

Number of load repetitions

Asphalt Institute method

TIRE-CONTACT AREAS
Contact Pressure and Tyre Pressure
Contact Pressure and Tyre Pressure

Inflation Pressure

Tyre Pressure

Low Inflation Pressure High Inflation Pressure

Contact Pressure
Contact Pressure > Tyre Pressure Contact Pressure < Tyre Pressure
Tyre is in Compression Tyre is in Tension

Load on wheel
Contact Pressure =
Contact area of imprint
Contact Pressure and Tyre Pressure

Contact Pressure
Rigidity Factor (RF) =
Tyre Pressure

Contact Pressure = Tyre Pressure, RF = 1, Average tyre pressure = 0.7MPa.

Contact Pressure > Tyre Pressure, RF > 1 Average tyre pressure < 0.7MPa

Contact Pressure < Tyre Pressure, RF < 1 Average tyre pressure > 0.7MPa
Contact Pressure and Tyre Pressure

The distribution of pressure (vertical, centripetal or unidirectional) with depth is

generally not uniform.

Uniformly distributed vertical surface stress equal to tyre pressure is generally taken
for analysis.

The equation for vertical stress computations under a uniformly distributed circular
load as per Boussineq’s theory is given by.

σz = [1 – { Z3/(a2 + z2)3/2]
Where,
σz = vertical stress at depth, z
a = radius of loaded area.
 Shape of Contact Area
 Circular If the loaded area or the contact area “A”
of the wheel is assumed to be circular in
 Rectangular shape of radius “a” then relationship
 Rectangular with semi-circular ends between P & A and p may be expressed
as:
Load on wheel (P)
Area(A) = P= Ap = Πa2p
Contact Pressure (p)

A= (1/Π)(P/p)0.5 0.3L
0.6L Area = 0.5227L2

L 0.8712L
Actual Area Equivalent Area
 (a) was used previously by PCA in 1966
For design of rigid pavements

Note: The influence of contact pressure, p of the tire is predominant in the upper layers. At a
greater depth the effect of “p” diminishes and magnitude of load “P” exhibits a major influence on
the magnitude of vertical stress distribution.
Tyre pressure of high magnitudes therefore demand high quality of materials in upper layers of
flexible pavements.

The total depth of pavement is not influenced by the tire pressure. It is governed by the magnitude
of wheel load “P”
The current PCA (1984) method is based on the finite-
element procedure and a rectangular area is assumed
With length of 0.8712L and width of 0.6L, which has the
same area of 0.5227L2

These contact areas are not axisymmetric and cannot be

used with the layered theory

When the layer theory is used for flexible pavement

design, it is assumed that each tire has a circular contact
area.

This assumption is not correct, but the error incurred is

believed to be small.

To simplify the analysis of flexible pavements, a single

circle with the same contact area as the duals is
frequently used to represent a set of dual tires, instead of
using two circular areas.
Traffic Loads
Different Types of vehicles
Two Wheelers
Passenger Car
Auto-Rickshaw
Tractor
Bus
Truck
Combination of Vehicular Units
Permissible Weights as per IRC
Vehicle Type Gross Weight Maximum Axle Weight (tonnes)
(in tonnes)
Truck/Tractor Trailer
FAW RAW FAW RAW
Single Tyre 12 6 6
FA-Single, Rear-Dual 16.2 6 10.2
Type 3 24 6 18(TA)
Type 2-S1 26.4 6 10.2 10.2
Type 2-S2 34.2 6 10.2 18(TA)
Type 3-S1 34.2 6 18(TA) 10.2
Type 3-S2 42 6 18(TA) 18(TA)
Type 2-2 36.6 6 10.2 10.2 10.2
Type 3-2 44.4 6 18(TA) 10.2 10.2
Type 2-3 44.4 6 10.2 10.2 18(TA)
Type 3-3 52.2 6 18(TA) 10.2 18(TA)
VEHICLE SPEEDS
 Vehicle Type & Load consideration

 Fixed Traffic
thickness of pavement is governed by a single load.
Load repetitions is not considered as variable.
Multiple wheels converted to an Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL).
Used in airport and highway pavement with heavy wheel load.
Vehicle Type & Load consideration

 Fixed Vehicle
Thickness is governed by the number of repetitions of a standard vehicle or axle
load (18-kip or 80kN).

Axles load which are neither single nor equal to 80kN are converted into
equivalent standard (80kN) axle load using Equivalent Axle load Factor (EALF).

Multiplying the no of repetitions of a given axle load with EALF gives the
equivalent number of 80kN axle load repetitions.

Most of the design methods in use today based on fixed vehicle concept.
 Vehicle Type & Load consideration

 Variable Vehicle and Traffic

Both traffic and vehicle are considered individually.
No need to deal traffic with equivalent factor for each axle load.
Loads, repetitions of each individual load and their variations are considered
important for design.

Best suited for mechanistic methods of design with cumulative damage

approach.
 Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL)

Defined as the single wheel load replacement which will cause same magnitude of
a pre selected parameter (stress, strain and deflection) at a given location within a
specific pavement system to that of a multiple –wheel load at the same location
within the pavement structure.

Max legal axle load on single axle of heavy commercial vehicle is 10.2 T. Hence design
wheel load on each dual wheel assembly is 5.1 T or 5,100 kg

8.16 or 8.17 T is being considered as the standard axle load for determination of
equivalency factors of axle load of other magnitudes in India and other countries.
The load equivalency factors and damaging power of different axle loads considered
as per IRC:37 are with respect to standard axle load of 8.16T or 8160 kg.

The standard axle load for the design of flexible pavement overlay over existing
flexible pavement in India using Benkelman beam rebound deflection method
(IRC:81) is taken as 8.17T or 8170 kg.
 Wheel or Axle load studies

Wheel or axle load distribution studies are carried out in order to determine the
EWLF or VDF values of the heavy vehicle classes

The actual load of each set of wheels or each axle is measured in the selected
sample of each vehicle class

It is desirable to decide the sample size based on the no. of heavy vehicles in
each classified group of heavy vehicles so that even small no. of vehicles of any
class is not left out in the sampling process.

However, in order to simplify the process, generally the sample size is decided
based on the total no. of all the heavy vehcles per day
 Wheel or Axle load studies
The recommended minimum sample sizes for carrying out axle or wheel load
distribution studies in major highway projects are:

1. 20% if the no. of the vehicle class is less than 3000 per day
2. 15% if the no. of the vehicle class is 3000 to 6000 per day
3. 10% if the no. of the vehicle class is greater than 6000 per day

Determination of ESWL/VDF

Determination of ESWL factor or VDF is done by fourth power law.

LCV with rear axle load of 2.0 T & HCV with rear axle load of 15.5 T

EWLF of LCV = (2.0/8.16)4 = 0.0036

EWLF of HCV = (15.5/8.16)4 = 13.02
 ESWL –Equal Vertical Stress Criterion
P P

S No stress developed if pavement

thickness is smaller than d/2
d

d/2
Complete stress
overlap if pavement
2S thickness is greater
than 2S

As per stress criterion, ESWL is the single wheel load

producing the same value of maximum stress at the desired
depth Z (say, depth Z equal to the thickness of the
pavement) as the duel wheel load assembly.
In order to simplify the analysis, the load dispersion is assumed to be at an angle
of 450
If “a” is the radius of the equivalent circular contact area of each wheel,
then S= (d+ 2a)

Up to the depth z = d/2, each wheel load “P” acts independently

At depth greater than d/2, the compressive stresses within the pavement due to
each load begins to overlap

At depth z= 2S and above, the overlapped area is considerably high.

Therefore, the total stress due to the dual wheels at any depth greater than 2S or
the ESWL is considered to be equivalent to magnitude 2P
 ESWL –Equal Vertical Stress Criterion

B
2P
ESWL (log scale)

P
A

Z= d/2 Z Z= 2S
Depth Z (log scale)

0.301 log (2 Z/d)

log (ESWL) = log P +
log (4S/d)
 ESWL –Equal Vertical Deflection Criterion

As per deflection criterion the ESWL is that single load having the same contact
pressure, p which produces the same value of maximum deflection at depth Z.

Deflection at any depth and radial distance is given by

D= p.a.F/E

Where,
D is the deflection at depth ‘z’ and radial distance (measured from the Center of
the load) ‘r’ and ‘E’ is the elastic modulus of the pavement (subgrade modulus in
case of a two-layer system) and
F is deflection factor, a function of ‘r’ and ‘z’
ESWL –Equal Vertical Deflection Criterion

Single Layer System

ESWL –Equal Vertical Deflection Criterion

2-Layer System
Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL)

20kN 20kN

310mm
120mm

250mm
E1 = E2
Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL)

20kN 20kN

310mm 120mm

60mm
250mm

620mm
Subgrade
Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL)

ESWL (log scale) 40

20

60 250 620
Depth Z (log scale)
ESWL –Other Criteria

 Equal Tensile Strain

 Equal Contact Pressure
 Equivalent Contact Radius
 Equivalent Axle Load Factors (EALF)
EALF defines the damage per pass to a pavement by the axle in question relative to the
damage per pass of a standard axle load (usually 80kN single axle load).

The design based on the total number of passes of standard axle load during the design
period (ESAL)

ESAL = Σ Fi ni
Where,
m = number of axle load groups
Fi= EALF for the ith-axle load group
ni= number of passes of the ith-axle load group during the design period

EALF is a function of the type of pavement, thickness or structural capacity and the terminal
condition at which the pavement considered failed.

EALFs are normally used for converting different axle loads into equivalent standard axle load
repetitions.
EALFs obtained from the AASHO road test are most widely used(AASHTO 1972).

EALFs can also be determined from theoretical exercise based on appropriate

mechanistic criteria.

Equivalent axle load factors varied depending upon the types of pavement and
for different performance criteria.

Generally accepted approach for the conversion of axle load of different

magnitude in terms of a standard axle is by the ‘Fourth Power Law’, presented as

ESAL factor = (Given axle load / Standard axle load)4

Climatic Factors
• Variation in moisture condition.
Total.
Seasonal Distribution.

• Frost action.
Frost susceptible soil.
Depressed temperature below freezing point.
Supply of water.
• Variation in Temperature
Daily variation
Seasonal variation
Maximum temperature
Minimum temperature.