Advanced Digital

Communication
Outline
 Multiple Access
 Multiplexing
 Duplexing
 Multiplexing schemes for wireless
 OFDM
Introduction

 many users at same time

 share a finite amount of radio spectrum
 high performance
 duplexing generally required
 frequency domain
 time domain
Multiple access vs. multiplexing

 Multiplexing allows several transmission

sources to share a larger transmission capacity
 Multiple access: two or more simultaneous
transmissions share a broadcast channel
 sometimes interchangeable
Multiplexing
 Sharing network
resources: Bandwidth,
router, buffer
 The cost of deploying
high bandwidth
transmission line is
more economical
 Exploit the statistical
behavior of users
Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM)
 The bandwidth is
divided into frequency
slots
 Each frequency slot is
allocated to a different
user
 FDM was first
introduced in the
telephone network
 Other examples –
broadcast radio and
Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM)
 Useful bandwidth of
medium exceeds required
bandwidth of channel
 Each signal is modulated
to a different carrier
frequency
 Carrier frequencies
separated so signals do not
overlap (guard bands)
 e.g. broadcast radio
 Channel allocated even if
no data
Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM)
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Duplexing
 For voice or data communications, must
assure two way communication (duplexing, it
is possible to talk and listen simultaneously).
Duplexing may be done using frequency or
time domain techniques.
 Forward (downlink) band provides traffic from the
BS to the mobile
 Reverse (uplink) band provides traffic from the
mobile to the BS.
Frequency division duplexing (FDD)

 Provides two distinct bands of frequencies for

every user, one for downlink and one for
uplink.
 A large interval between these frequency
bands must be allowed so that interference is
minimized. Reverse Forward
Channel Channel
fc, fc,, frequency
R F
Frequency separation
Frequency separation should be carefully decided
Frequency separation is constant
Frequency division duplexing
(FDD)
 two bands of frequencies for every user
 forward band & reverse band
 duplexer needed
 frequency separation between forward band
and reverse band is constant
Time division duplexing (TDD)
 In TDD communications, both directions of transmission use
one contiguous frequency allocation, but two separate time
slots to provide both a forward and reverse link.
 Because transmission from mobile to BS and from BS to mobile
alternates in time, this scheme is also known as “ping pong”.
 As a consequence of the use of the same frequency band, the
communication quality in both directions is the same. This is
different from FDD.
 uses time for forward and reverse link
 multiple users share a single radio channel
 forward time slot and reverse time slot
 no duplexer is required
Time division duplexing (TDD)

Slot number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 …
channel F R F R F R F R ….

Reverse Forward
Channel Channel

Ti Ti+1 time

Time separation
Multiple Access Techniques

 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)

 Time division multiple access (TDMA)
 Code division multiple access (CDMA)
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)
 These are grouped as:
 narrowband systems
 wideband systems
Narrowband Systems

 Transmission experiences nonselective fading. This means

that when fades occur, all of the information (i.e. the
whole channel) is affected.
 Channel system : generally total spectrum is divided into a
number of relatively narrow radio channels (e.g. FDMA).
Occurrence of call blocking if channels are all being used.
Unused bandwidth in each channel cannot be used by
other users.
 Narrowband Systems (Interleaving +
coding techniques are used)
 Data generated in source 1 2 3 4 5 …
8 9 10 11 12 … 15 16 17 18 …
 Transmitted data 1 8 15 22 29 … 2 9
16 23 … 3 10 17 24 …
 Received data 1 8 15 22 29 … 2 9 16
23 30 … 3 10 17 24 31 …
 with the shaded data bits undergo
deep fade
 Deinterleaved data 1 2 3 4 5 … 8 9
… 15 16 17 18 …
Wideband Systems

 The main feature of wideband systems is that either

all the spectrum available (e.g. CDMA, TDMA) or a
considerable portion of it is used by each user (e.g.
TDMA+FDMA).
 The advantage of wideband systems is that the
transmission bandwidth always exceeds the
coherence bandwidth for which the signal experiences
only selective fading. That is, only a small fraction of
the frequencies composing the signal is affected by
fading.
 Signal can be distorted and therefore equalization is
needed but unlikely that a total signal fade will occur.
Narrowband systems

 large number of narrowband channels

 usually FDD
 Narrowband FDMA
 Narrowband TDMA
 FDMA/FDD
 FDMA/TDD
 TDMA/FDD
 TDMA/TDD
Logical separation FDMA/FDD

forward channel
user 1
reverse channel

...
f

forward channel
user n
reverse channel

t
Logical separation FDMA/TDD

user 1

forward channel reverse channel

...
f

user n

forward channel reverse channel

t
Logical separation TDMA/FDD

forward forward
channel channel

user 1 ... user n f

reverse reverse

channel channel

t
Logical separation TDMA/TDD

user 1 user n

...
forward reverse forward reverse f
channel channel channel channel

t
Wideband systems

 large number of transmitters on one

channel
 TDMA techniques
 CDMA techniques
 FDD or TDD multiplexing techniques
 TDMA/FDD
 TDMA/TDD
 CDMA/FDD
 CDMA/TDD
Logical separation CDMA/FDD

user 1

forward channel reverse channel

...
code

user n

forward channel reverse channel

f
Logical separation CDMA/TDD

user 1

forward channel reverse channel

...
code

user n

forward channel reverse channel

t
Multiple Access Techniques in use
Cellular System Multiple Access Technique

AMPS FDMA/FDD
GSM TDMA/FDD
USDC (IS-54 and IS-136) TDMA/FDD
PDC TDMA/FDD
CT2 Cordless Phone FDMA/TDD
DECT Cordless Phone FDMA/TDD
US IS-95 CDMA/FDD
W-CDMA CDMA/FDD
CDMA/TDD
cdma2000 CDMA/FDD
CDMA/TDD
Frequency division multiple access
FDMA

 one phone circuit per channel

 idle time causes wasting of resources
 simultaneously and continuously
transmitting
 usually implemented in narrowband systems
 for example: in AMPS is a FDMA bandwidth
of 30 kHz implemented
FDMA compared to TDMA

 fewer bits for synchronization

 fewer bits for framing
 higher cell site system costs
 higher costs for duplexer used in base station
and subscriber units
 FDMA requires RF filtering to minimize
adjacent channel interference
Nonlinear Effects in FDMA

 many channels - same antenna

 for maximum power efficiency operate near
saturation
 near saturation power amplifiers are nonlinear
 nonlinearities causes signal spreading
 intermodulation frequencies
Nonlinear Effects in FDMA

 interference with other channels in the FDMA

system
 decreases user C/I - decreases performance
 interference outside the mobile radio band:
adjacent-channel interference
 RF filters needed - higher costs
Number of channels in a FDMA
system

Bt - Bguard
N=
Bc

 N = number of channels
 Bt = total spectrum allocation
 Bguard = guard band
 Bc = channel bandwidth
Example: Advanced Mobile Phone
System

 AMPS
 FDMA/FDD
 analog cellular system
 12.5 MHz per simplex band - Bt
 Bguard = 10 kHz ; Bc = 30 kHz

12.5E6 - 2*(10E3)
N= = 416
30E3
channels
Time Division Multiple Access

 time slots
 one user per slot
 buffer and burst method
 noncontinuous transmission
 digital data
 digital modulation
Repeating Frame Structure

One TDMA Frame

Preamble Information Message Trail Bits

Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 … Slot N

Trail Bits Sync. Bits Information Data Guard Bits

The frame is cyclically repeated over time.

Features of TDMA

 a single carrier frequency for several users

 transmission in bursts
 low battery consumption
 handoff process much simpler
 FDD : switch instead of duplexer
 very high transmission rate
 high synchronization overhead
 guard slots necessary
Number of channels in a TDMA
system

m*(Btot - 2*Bguard)
N=
Bc
 N = number of channels
 m = number of TDMA users per radio channel
 Btot = total spectrum allocation
 Bguard = Guard Band
 Bc = channel bandwidth
Example: Global System for Mobile (GSM)

 TDMA/FDD
 forward link at Btot = 25 MHz
 radio channels of Bc = 200 kHz
 if m = 8 speech channels supported, and
 if no guard band is assumed :

N= 8*25E6 = 1000 simultaneous

200E3
users
Efficiency of TDMA

 percentage of transmitted data that contain

information
 frame efficiency f
 usually end user efficiency < f ,
 because of source and channel coding
 How get f ?
Repeating Frame Structure

One TDMA Frame

Preamble Information Message Trail Bits

Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 … Slot N

Trail Bits Sync. Bits Information Data Guard Bits

The frame is cyclically repeated over time.

Efficiency of TDMA

bOH = Nr*br + Nt*bp + Nt*bg + Nr*bg

 bOH = number of overhead bits
 Nr = number of reference bursts per frame
 br = reference bits per reference burst
 Nt = number of traffic bursts per frame
 bp = overhead bits per preamble in each slot
 bg = equivalent bits in each guard time
intervall
Efficiency of TDMA

bT = Tf * R

 bT = total number of bits per frame

 Tf = frame duration
 R = channel bit rate
Efficiency of TDMA

f = (1-bOH/bT)*100%

 f = frame efficiency
 bOH = number of overhead bits per frame
 bT = total number of bits per frame
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
(SSMA)
 Spread spectrum systems : The desired signal
is transmitted over a bandwidth which is much
larger than the Nyquist bandwidth. It is first
developed for military applications for
 Security
 Undetectability: minimum probability of being
detected
 Robust against intentional jammers
Applications

 Security
 Robust against unintentional interference
 It is not bandwidth efficient when used by a single
user but has the capability to overcome narrowband
jamming signals (cannot overcome AWGN or
wideband jamming signal) and multi-path.
 Providing multiple access
 If many users can share the same spread spectrum
bandwidth without interfering with one another,
bandwidth efficient improved but will affect the
capability to overcome jamming.
Spread Spectrum Access
 Two techniques
 Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (FHMA)
 Direct Sequence Multiple Access (DSMA)
 Also called Code Division Multiple Access – CDMA
Frequency Hopping (FHMA)
 Digital muliple access technique
 A wideband radio channel is used.
 Same wideband spectrum is used
 The carrier frequency of users are varied in a pseudo-
random fashion.
 Each user is using a narrowband channel (spectrum)
at a specific instance of time.
 The random change in frequency make the change of
using the same narrowband channel very low.
Frequency Hopping (FHMA)
 The sender receiver change frequency (calling
hopping) using the same pseudo-random
sequence, hence they are synchronized.
 Rate of hopping versus Symbol rate
 If hopping rate is greater: Called Fast Frequency
Hopping
 One bit transmitted in multiple hops.

 If symbol rate is greater: Called Slow Frequency

Hopping
 Multiple bits are transmitted in a hopping period

 GSM and Bluetooth are example systems

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

 In CDMA, the narrowband message signal is multiplied

by a very large bandwidth signal called spreading signal
(code) before modulation and transmission over the air.
This is called spreading.

 CDMA is also called DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread

Spectrum). DSSS is a more general term.

 Message consists of symbols

 Has symbol period and hence, symbol rate
•Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
 Spreading signal (code) consists of chips
 Has Chip period and and hence, chip rate
 Spreading signal use a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence (a pseudo-
random sequence)
 PN sequence is called a codeword
 Each user has its own cordword
 Codewords are orthogonal. (low autocorrelation)
 Chip rate is oder of magnitude larger than the symbol rate.
 The receiver correlator distinguishes the senders signal
by examining the wideband signal with the same time-
synchronized spreading code
 The sent signal is recovered by despreading process at
the receiver.
CDMA Advantages
 Low power spectral density.
 Signal is spread over a larger frequency band

 Other systems suffer less from the

transmitter
 Interference limited operation
 All frequency spectrum is used
 Privacy
 The codeword is known only between the
sender and receiver. Hence other users can
not decode the messages that are in transit
 Reduction of multipath affects by using a larger
spectrum
CDMA Advantages
 Random access possible
 Users can start their transmission at any time
 Cell capacity is not concerete fixed like in
TDMA or FDMA systems. Has soft capacity
 Higher capacity than TDMA and FDMA
 No frequency management
 No equalizers needed
 No guard time needed
 Enables soft handoff
 CDMA Principle Represent bit 1 with +1
Represent bit 0 with -1
One bit period (symbol period)

1 1
Data
0

1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

Coded
Signal

Chip period
Input to the modulator (phase modulation)
SDMA
 Use spot beam antennas
 The different beam area can use TDMA, FDMA,
CDMA
 Sectorized antenna can be thought of as a SDMA
 Adaptive antennas can be used in the future
(simultaneously steer energy in the direction of
many users)

spot beam
antenna
Features
 A large number of independently steered high-
gain beams can be formed without any
resulting degradation in SNR ratio.
 Beams can be assigned to individual users,
thereby assuring that all links operate with
maximum gain.
 Adaptive beam forming can be easily
implemented to improve the system capacity
by suppressing co channel interference.
Reverse link problems

 general problem
 different propagation path from user to base
 dynamic control of transmitting power from
each user to the base station required
 limits by battery consumption of subscriber
units
 possible solution is a filter for each user
Solution by SDMA systems

 adaptive antennas promise to mitigate reverse

link problems
 limiting case of infinitesimal beamwidth
 limiting case of infinitely fast track ability
 thereby unique channel that is free from
interference
 all user communicate at same time using the
same channel