Advanced Digital

Communication
Topics
 Equalization
 Introduction

 Three techniques are used independently or in

tandem to improve receiver signal quality
 Equalization compensates for ISI created by
multipath with time dispersive channels
Linear equalization, nonlinear equalization
 Diversity also compensates for fading channel
impairments, and is usually implemented by using
two or more receiving antennas
Spatial diversity, antenna polarization diversity,
frequency diversity, time diversity
 Introduction

 The former counters the effects of time dispersion

(ISI), while the latter reduces the depth and duration
of the fades experienced by a receiver in a flat fading
(narrowband) channel
 Channel Coding improves mobile communication
link performance by adding redundant data bits in
the transmitted message
 Channel coding is used by the Rx to detect or correct
some (or all) of the errors introduced by the channel
(Post detection technique)
Block code and convolutional code
 Explanation of ISI
t
t
Fourier
Fourier
Channel Transform
Transform

f f

Tb 2Tb 5Tb 6Tb

3Tb 4Tb
t
Reasons for ISI
 Channel is band limited in
nature
Physics – e.g. parasitic
capacitance in twisted pairs
 limited frequency response
  unlimited time response

• Channel has multi-path

reflections

•Tx filter might add ISI when

channel spacing is crucial.
Channel Model
 Channel is unknown
 Channel is usually modeled as Tap-Delay-Line
(FIR)
x(n)
D D D

h(0) h(1) h(2) h(N-1) h(N)

+
+ +
+ +

y(n)
Equalization
 To compensate for channel induced ISI we use a process known as
Equalization: a technique of correcting the frequency response of
the channel
 The filter used to perform such a process is called an equalizer

 Since HR(f) is matched to HT(f), we usually worry about HC(f)

 The goal is to pick the frequency response HEQ(f) of the equalizer
such that H ( f ) H ( f )  1  H ( f )  1
e  j c ( f )
c EQ EQ
HC ( f )
1
 where | H EQ ( f ) | | H C ( f ) | and the phase characteristics  EQ ( f )  C ( f )
Equalization Process
 Apply a filter that results in an equalized impulse response having
zero ISI and channel distortion.
 This means that convolution of the channel impulse response and the
equalizer impulse response must equal 1 at the center tap and have
nulls at the other sample points within the filter span.

Problems with Equalization

 It can be difficult to determine the inverse of the channel response if
the channel response is zero at any frequency, then the inverse is
not defined at that frequency.
 The receiver generally does not know what the channel response is.
Channel changes in real time so equalization must be adaptive
 The equalizer can have an infinite impulse response even if the
channel has a finite impulse response
 The impulse response of the equalizer must usually be truncated
Need For Equalization
 Need For Equalization:
 Overcome ISI degradation
 Need For Adaptive Equalization:
 Changing Channel in Time

 => Objective:
Find the Inverse of the Channel Response to
reflect a ‘delta channel to the Rx
 Equalization Techniques

Fig. 1
 Equalization Techniques
 Two general categories - linear and nonlinear
equalization (see Fig. 3)
 In Fig. 1, if d(t) is not the feedback path to adapt the
equalizer, the equalization is linear
 In Fig. 1, if d(t) is fed back to change the subsequent
outputs of the equalizer, the equalization is nonlinear
Equalization Techniques

Fig.3 Classification of equalizers

Equalization Techniques or Structures

 Three Basic Equalization Structures

 Linear Transversal Filter
 Simple implementation using Tap Delay Line or FIR filters

 FIR filter has guaranteed stability (although adaptive algorithm

which determines coefficients may still be unstable)

 Decision Feedback Equalizer

 Extra step in subtracting estimated residual error from signal

 Maximal Likelihood Sequence Estimator (Viterbi)

 “Optimal” performance

 High complexity and implementation problem (not heavily used)

Linear Transversal Equalizer

 This is simply a linear filter with adjustable parameters

 The parameters are adjusted on the basis of the measurement of the
channel characteristics
 A common choice for implementation is the transversal filter (Tap
Delay Line) or the FIR filter with adjustable tap coefficient

 Total number of taps = 2N+1

 Total delay = 2Nt; t is chosen as high as T
 N is chosen sufficiently large so that equalizer spans length of the ISI.

 Normally the ISI is assumed to be limited to a finite number of samples

 The output yk of the Tap Delay Line equalizer in response to the input
sequence {xk} (which is the output of the matched filter) is
N
yk  c x
n N
n k n , k  2 N ,......2 N

where cn is the weight of the nth tap

 Ideally, we would like the equalizer to eliminate ISI resulting in
1, k 0
yk  
0, k 0

 But this cannot be achieved in practice.

 However, the tap gains can be chosen such that

1, k 0
yk  
0, k  1,2,......  N

 There are two types of such equalizer (i.e., linear equalizers)

Preset Equalizer:
 Assume channel is time invariant

 Transmits a training sequence that is compared at the receiver

with a locally generated sequence
 Requires an initial training sequence

 Try to find the channel transfer function and design equalizer

based on that
 Differences between sequences are used to update the
coefficient cn
 Examples: ZFE, MMSE, DFE
Adaptive Equalizer:
 Assumption is that channel is time varying, but slowly time
varying
 Equalizer adjust itself periodically during transmission of data
 The tap weights constitute the adaptive filter coefficient
 The two techniques can be combined into a robust equalizer. In this
case, there are two modes of operation:
 Training Mode
 For the training mode, a known sequence is transmitted and a
synchronized version is generated at the receiver
 Decision-directed mode
 When training mode is complete, the adaptive algorithm is
switched on
 The tap weights are then adjusted with info from training mode

 The impulse response of the transversal filter is

N
heq (t )   c  (t  nt )
n N
n

N
 H eq ( f )   n
c e
n N
 j 2fnt
Training Mode vs. Decision Directed mode
 If x(t) is the signal pulse corresponding to

X ( f )  HT ( f ) H C ( f ) H R ( f )

then the equalized output signal is

N
y (t )  c
n N
n x (t  nt )

 Nyquist zero ISI condition implies that

N
1, k 0
yk  y (kT )   cn x(kT  nt )  
n N 0, k  1,2,...., N
 Since there are 2N+1 equalizer coefficients, we may
express in matrix form as:
y=Xc
where:
X = (2N+1) x(2N+1) matrix (because K=-2N to 2N) with
elements x(kT - nt), We consider (2N+1)x(2N+1) values of
the received data
c = (2N+1) column coefficient vector
y = (2N+1) column vector

 In the Figure, t is chosen as high as T

 t = T  Symbol-spaced equalizer; t < T  Fractional-
spaced equalizer
Fractionally Spaced Equalizer

The spectrum property of the baud-rate and fractionally spaced equalizer.

Fractional Spaced Equalizer
 I‰n previous equalizers, taps are separated by
symbol duration T
 However, the pulse often extends to more than
‰
a symbol duration (such as in RC pulses)
 In this case FSE performs better ‰
‰
 In FSE, the taps are separated in time by the
reciprocal of Nyquist rate (<T) ‰
FSE has better
performance
Symbol vs. Fractional spaced
 A fractionally spaced equalizer has the
following advantages over symbol spaced:
 No sensitivity to timing phase
 Superior performance in most cases
 Symbol spaced equalizers, offer lower
complexity in some cases (not always)
Zero Forcing
 The filter taps are adjusted such that the
equalizer output is forced to be zero at N
sample points on each side
Zero-Forcing Solution
 We obtain a set of (2N+1) linear equations for the ZFE and force y[n]
other than at the sampling instant to be zero.
 For N=1
k  1, y(1)  c1 x(1  (1))  c0 x(1  (0))  c1 x(1  (1))

k 0, y(0)  c1 x(0  (1))  c0 x(0  (0))  c1 x(0  (1))

k 1, y(1)  c1 x(1  (1))  c0 x(1  (0))  c1 (1  (1))

 y(1)  x(0) x(1) x(2) c1 

 y(0)    x(1) x(0) x(1)  c 
      0
 y(1)   x(2) x(1) x(0)   c1 
( 2 N  1)  ( 2 N  1) ( 2 N  1) 1
 For N=2
 y (2)  x(0) x(1) x(2) x(3) x(4)  c 2 
 y (1)   x(1) x(0) x(1) x(2) x(3)  c 
     1 
 y (0)    x(2) x(1) x(0) x(1) x(2)  c0 
     
 y (1)   x (3) x ( 2) x (1) x ( 0) x ( 1)   c1 
 y (2)   x(4) x(3) x(2) x(1) x(0)   c2 

 Generalizing results: c  X 1z

0 
0 
0   
where z  1  for N  1 and z  1  for N  2
 
0  0 
0 
Zero Forcing Equalizer: Noise Enhancement
 The Fourier transform of the received signal can be written as:
X ( )  HC ( ) S ( )  N ( ) (A)
 Where S(ω) is the Fourier transform of the transmitted signal and
N(ω). Now defining the equalizer response Heq(ω) as the inverse of the
channel:
H eq ( )  1/ H c ( ) (B)
 Using (A) in (B), we get

Sˆ ( )  H eq ( ) X ( )  H eq ( ) H c ( ) S ( )  H eq ( ) N ( )
1 1 N ( )
 H c ( ) S ( )  N ( )  S ( ) 
H c ( ) H c ( ) H c ( )

 This shows that at the output of the ZFE the noise will be
enhanced if the channel frequency response has spectral nulls
Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE)
 The filter taps are adjusted such that the MSE of ISI and n
oise power at the equalizer output is minimized
Minimum MSE Solution
 A more robust equalizer can be obtained if {cn} tap weights are chosen
to minimize the mean square error (MSE) of all ISI terms plus noise
power at the output of equalizer
 MSE is defined as:
the expected value of the squared difference between
the desired data symbol and estimated data symbol

Whereas e( n)  z ( n)  xc

MSE  E[| e(n) |2 ]

 E[ z 2 (n)  cxT xcT  2 z (n)xTc]

  E[ z 2 (n)]  c E[xT x]cT  2E[ z (n)xT ]c

  z2  cR xx cT  2R zxc

MSE
 0
c
 2Rxx c  2R zx  0

 c  R 1xx R zx
 Deterministic Case:

R xx  x T x

R zx  z (n)x T
Decision Feedback Equalizer (DFE)

 A decision-feedback equalizer (DFE) is a nonlinear equalizer

that employs previous decisions to eliminate the ISI caused by
previously detected symbol
 It consists of a feedforward section a feedback section and a detector
connected together as shown

 The filters are usually fractionally spaced FIR with adjustable tap
coefficients
 The detector is a symbol-by-symbol detector
 DFE is based on the principle that once you have determined the
value of the current transmitted symbol, you can exactly remove the
ISI contribution of that symbol to future received symbols
 The nonlinear feature is due to the decision device, which attempts to
determine which symbol of a set of discrete levels was actually
transmitted.
 Once the current symbol has been decided, the filter structure can
calculate the ISI effect it would tend to have on subsequent received
symbols and compensate the input to the decision device for the next
samples.
 This postcursor ISI removal is accomplished by the use of a feedback
filter structure.
ZF-DFE
MMSE-DFE
 Blind Equalization
 ZFE and MSE equalizers assume
option of training sequence for
learning the channel.
 What happens when there is none?
 Blind Equalization
Input Adaptive
Output
~ Decision
Vn Equalizer In Iˆn

But Usually employs also : -

Error en
Interleaving\DeInterleaving
Signal +
Advanced coding
ML criterion dn
With LMS
Why? Blind Eq is hard and complicated enough!
So if you are going to implement it, use the best blocks
For decision (detection) and equalizing
 Turbo Equalization
Iterative :
Estimate
Equalize
Decode Next iteration would rely on better estimation
ReEncode therefore would lead more precise equalization

Usually employs also :

Interleaving\DeInterleaving
TurboCoding (Advanced iterative code)
MAP (based on ML criterion)
Why? It is complicated enough!
So if you are going to implement it, use the best blocks
D D
D L e(c)
Channel L e(c’) 1
L (c)
P +
Estimator

E E
r MAP L (c’) L e(c’)
E
L e(c) MAP
+ P
Equalizer Decoder
D
L (d)
Performance of Turbo Eq Vs
Iterations
Adaptive Equalization for Digital Cellular
Telephony

 The direct sequence spreading employed by CDMA (IS-95) obviates

the need for a traditional equalizer.
 The TDMA systems (for example, GSM and IS-54), on the other hand,
make great use of equalization to contend with the effects of:
 multipath-induced fading,
 ISI due to channel spreading,
 additive received noise,
 channel-induced spectral distortion, etc
 Of the nonlinear equalizers, the DFE is currently the most practical
system to implement in a consumer system.
 Other designs that outperform the DFE in terms of convergence or
noise performance, but these generally come at the expense of greatly
increased system complexity.
MLSE Equalizer
MLSE
•/
MLSE requires knowledge of the channel characteristics in order to compute
the matrics for making decisions
MLSE also requires knowledge of the statistical distribution of the noise corr
upting the signal