GROUNDWATER

SUBTITLE
At the end of the lecture, you will learn:
• The forms of subsurface water
• Aquifer Properties
• Geologic Formations as Aquifers
• Compressibility of Aquifers
• Equation of Motion
• Well
• Steady Flow into a Well
• Open Wells
• Groundwater may be defined as water that occurs below
the surface of the earth. It is also known as sub-surface
water.
• The main source of groundwater is precipitation. The
water that infiltrates, after meeting the requirement of the
soil, percolates and then becomes groundwater. It is also
known as meteoric water.
• Water present in the rock at the time of its formation is
known as connate water. It is highly saline. It is also known
as fossil water or interstitial water.
• Juvenile water is formed chemically within the earth. It is in
a very small quantity and is also known as primitive water.
• The peculiarities of groundwater are as follows:
• •It is normally free from pollution but vulnerable to the pollution
entering from the surface sources with infiltration.
• •It can be made available on the surface at a small capital cost and in a
short duration, but involves repetitive cost of energy for lifting it to the
surface.
• •It is very useful for domestic purposes, for small towns and isolated
places since it requires minimum treatment.
• •It is available up to a depth of 3 km.
• •It is not an unlimited source and hence has to be managed against
excessive exploitation and contamination.
• •It exhibits less fluctuations in alternate wet and dry periods as
compared to the surface water.
• •It is free from weeds, plant organisms, turbidity and bacterial
pollution.
• It is uniform in quality, temperature, chemical composition and soluble
mineral contents, compared to the surface water.
FORMATION OF GROUNDWATER
• The zone above the water table is
known as unsaturated zone. It is
also known as vadose zone or
aeration zone.
• In this zone, the pores in the soil
may contain water or air, and the
pressure is atmospheric. This zone
may be divided into three
subzones:
• (1) soil-water zone, (2)
intermediate zone and (3) capillary
zone.
Soil-water zone
• It lies close to the ground surface in the major root zone of vegetation.
There may be loss of water from this zone by evapotranspiration. It
may extend from a few meters to 15 m, depending upon the nature of
soil and vegetation.
Intermediate zone
• This subzone is between the soil-water zone and the capillary zone.
Water from the soil zone may flow downwards due to gravity. The
thickness of this zone may vary from zero to several meters.
Capillary zone
• From the saturated zone, i.e. from the water table, water may rise
above due to capillarity, hence this zone is known as the capillary zone
or the capillary fringe. The thickness may extend from a few
centimeters to a few meters, depending on the porosity and structure
of the soil. Water from this subzone may not move freely.
Saturated Zone
• Below the water table, all the pores in the soil are filled
with water. Hence, it is known as the saturated zone. It is
also known as the phreatic zone.
• Water in this zone moves freely and may extend till the
impermeable rock below. The pressure in this zone is more
than atmospheric and increases as the depth increases.
OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER
Aquifer
• Formation of ground that contains water and may transmit
water in usable quantity is known as aquifer. The aquifer
may be unconfined or confined.
Unconfined aquifer
• An aquifer where the water table is the upper surface limit
and extends below till the impermeable rock strata is called
the unconfined aquifer. It is also known as free aquifer,
phreatic aquifer, water table aquifer and non-artesian
aquifer.
Confined aquifer
• When an aquifer is sandwiched between two impermeable layers, it is
known as a confined aquifer. It will not have a free water table, and the
aquifer will be under pressure as shown in Fig. 11.4.
• If there is a well in this layer, the water in the well will rise up to the
piezometric head. If the piezometric head is above the ground, then the
water from the well in this layer will flow over the ground. Then the well is
called as free-flowing well or flowing well.
• If the water level in a well in this layer is above the upper-confining layer
level, but below the ground level, then such a well is called as artesian well.
• Groundwater may move to the ground surface at a very small rate through
faults, permeable material in joints, discontinuities, and so on. It is then
called a spring.
• Aquiclude
• A geological formation that may contain water because of high
porosity but cannot transmit it is called an aquiclude. (eg clay)
• Aquitard
• A geological formation that has poor permeability, but through
which seepage is possible, and is insignificant as compared to
an aquifer is known as an aquitard. (eg sandy clay)
• Aquifuge
• A geological formation that neither contains nor transmits
water is called an aquifuge. Solid rock is an aquifuge.
• Leaky Aquifer
• An aquifer bound by two aquitards is known as a leaky
aquifer. It is also known as semi-confined aquifer.
• Perched Groundwater
• An impermeable saucer-shaped stratum of a small aerial
extent occurring in the zone of aeration may retain and
hold some amount of water. It is called perched
groundwater. It yields a limited quantity of water.
PARAMETERS OF AN AQUIFER
• The various parameters of an aquifer are as follows:
• (1) porosity,
• (2) permeability,
• (3) specific yield,
• (4) specific retention,
• (5) storage coefficient,
• (6) safe yield and
• (7) transmissibility.
Porosity
• Any soil sample contains some pores or voids. The porosity of the sample is
the ratio of the volume of voids and the volume of soil sample. It is a
dimensionless number and is normally denoted by n and is expressed as
percentage.
𝑉𝑣
• Thus, porosity 𝑛 = × 100
𝑉
where, Vv = Volume of pores or voids
V = Volume of sample
• Porosity is classified as follows:
• 20% or more—large, 5–20%—medium and less than 5%—small.
• The primary porosity of a material is one that existed when the material
was formed. The secondary porosity results from fractures, joints, solution
channels and so on.
Permeability
• Permeability is the property of an aquifer to transmit water through
its pores.
• The horizontal permeability and the vertical permeability may differ.
• Coefficient of permeability, K, is also known as hydraulic conductivity
and has the dimensions as those of the velocity of flow. It depends on
the fluid property as well as the property of the aquifer soil sample. K
is given by the following identity:
•

where, K = Hydraulic conductivity, c = A constant factor, d = Average pore size of the material,
ρ = Density of material, g = Gravitational acceleration, μ = Coefficient of dynamic viscosity of
water
Storage Coefficient
• Storage coefficient of an aquifer is the volume of water
received or discharged per unit head and per unit surface
area. It is also known as storativity. It is normally denoted
as ‘S’.
• The unit head in case of an unconfined aquifer will be the
unit drop in water table, and the unit head in case of a
confined aquifer will be the unit drop in the piezometric
head.
• The storage coefficient of a confined aquifer is very small
as compared to that of an unconfined one.
Specific Yield and Specific Retention
• If water is allowed to drain from a saturated sample of an
aquifer, some water will drain freely under gravity.
• The specific yield is the ratio of the volume of water drained
divided by the volume of soil sample.

• That is,

where, Sf = Specific yield, V w = Volume of water drained, V = Volume of soil

sample
• Some quantity of water will be retained by the soil sample
and will not be drained under gravity. This is due to
molecular attraction and surface tension. Specific retention
is defined as the ratio of the volume of water retained
divided by the volume of sample. It is denoted by Sr
• Thus,

where, Sr = Specific retention, Wf = Volume of water retained by the soil sample, V =

Volume of soil sample
• Naturally, n = Sf + Sr
where, n = Porosity
Sf = Specific yield
Sr = Specific retention
Transmissibility
• It is the product of the coefficient of permeability and the
thickness of the aquifer.
• Thus, T = K × b
• It has the dimensions of m2/s. It is also known as
transmissivity.
• For a unit width
• Q = area × velocity = b × 1 × K ×
• K = Hydraulic conductivity of the soil
• T = Transmissibility of the soil
Stratification
• Flow is parallel to the stratification

• Flow is normal to the stratification

Governing Equation for Groundwater Flow
• Darcy’s Law
𝑑ℎ
• 𝑄= −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑙
Where: Q=groundwater flow rate, K=hydraulic conductivity, A=cross sectional area normal to the
flow of direction, dh/dl=hydraulic gradient

• Well Hydraulics
𝑑ℎ
• 𝑄= −𝑘𝐴
𝑑r
dh/dl=hydraulic gradient in radial direction
Steady Radial Flow in Unconfined Aquifers
𝜋𝑘 ℎ22 −ℎ12
• 𝑄= 𝑟
ln 2
𝑟1
• Where Q= well discharge, k=hydraulic
conductivity of the aquifer, h2=piezometric
head at a radial distance r2 from the well, h1=
piezometric head at a radial distance r1 from
the well
Steady Radial Flow in Confined Aquifers
2𝜋𝑘𝑏(ℎ2 −ℎ1 )
• 𝑄= 𝑟2
ln
𝑟1
• Where Q= well discharge, k=hydraulic
conductivity of the aquifer, b= average
thickness of the confined aquifer,
h2=piezometric head at a radial distance r2
from the well, h1= piezometric head at a radial
distance r1 from the well
Example