What does the

structure of DNA
reveal about its
function?
What is DNA ?
 It contains the code that determines the shape and
structure of living organisms.
 James Watson and Francis Crick completed their model of
DNA. They announced that they had discovered the “secret
of life”.
 DNA is a macromolecule.
 Building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, made up
themselves from three parts
• Phosphate
• Sugar
• Base
 There are four different types of bases
• Adenine
• Cytosine
• Thymine
• Guanine
 Each base has a different shape.
 The bases make a 4 letter alphabet.
 The order of the bases in the DNA determines
the genetic code, which determines the
characteristics of the organisms.
 The phosphate and sugar from one nucleotide to another
nucleotide to form a long chain.

 Two of theses chains join together to form a DNA

molecule(a double helix), held together by the bases.

 The sugar and phosphates form the backbone of the

DNA, with the bases making the genetic code.
What do you notice about the bases? How do you
think this helps in DNA replication?
How does DNA code for proteins ?
 The central dogma of biology developed by Francis
Crick: DNA codes for RNA, which in turn codes for
proteins.

 RNA is a messenger molecule that copies the genetic

code from DNA(this is called transcription)

 The RNA travels from the nucleus to ribosomes in the

cytoplasm where it is “decoded“ and read by the
ribosomes to make proteins(this is called translation)
 DNA codes for proteins in the following way:
• DNA in the nucleus unwinds and unzips- the bases are exposed.

• A copy of the genetic code is taken- the molecule that does this
is called mRNA (messenger RNA)- this is called transcription
• mRNA travels out from the nucleus.

• The mRNA genetic code is read at a ribosome – the order of the

bases determines the order in which the amino acids are
assembled together to make a protein. This process is called
translation.

• Page 150 (kiwi experiment) extract DNA from kiwi fruit.

In what way is DNA the basis
of inheritance and evolution?

What are alleles?

WHAT ARE GENES?
 Each cell in an organism contains the molecules of DNA, which is a set
of instructions for particular characteristics in a species.

 The DNA in cells is not stored as one long molecule, but is divided into
several individual lengths called CHROMOSOMES.

 Humans have 23 different chromosomes (occurs in pairs) one from

each parent.

 Each chromosome contains lengths of genetic code that determine

different characteristics- these lengths of code are called GENES
 A gene is the unit of inheritance, passed down from one generation to
next.
So, to recap:
NUCLEUS: contains chromosomes made from DNA
CHROMOSOME: a linear strand of DNA
GENE: a section of chromosome that codes for a
particular protein.
 Each cell contains a nucleus which controls the
activities of the cell.

 Each nucleus contains lots of threads of DNA

called chromosomes-these carry information
which controls how your body works and what
you look like.

A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a

specific characteristic, such as eye colour.
Critical thinking
 What happens if one letter in a sentence is changed? Suppose, for
example, ‘the cat sat on the mat’ becomes ‘the cat sat on the rat’?
 One letter has been changed, but the meaning of the sentence is
completely different. The same happens with DNA- changes to the
genetic code can change the protein produced by a gene.
 A MUTATION is a change in the DNA of an organism.
 The change may or may not result in physical characteristics of the
organism.
 Mutation that occur in a gamete(sperm or egg) can be passed to
next generation, whereas mutations that occur in body( or
somatic) cells may be harmless or may result in a disease such as
cancer.
 Mutations can result in DNA being copied incorrectly.
 Mutagens can also cause mutations.
 Example of mutagens includes
• X-rays
• Ionizing radiations
• Chemicals( for example, the tar from the cigarettes )
Types of mutations
 There are many different ways that DNA can be changed, resulting
in different types of mutation. Here is a quick summary of a few of
these:

Substitution
A substitution is a mutation that exchanges one base for another.
Insertion
Insertions are mutations in which extra base pairs are inserted into a
new place in the DNA
Deletion
Deletions are mutations in which a section of DNA is lost, or deleted
 Other mutations result in whole chromosomes being lost or
repeated during cell division.
 Down syndrome, for example is the result of one of whole extra
chromosome 21, the result of faulty cell division in an egg or
sperm.
How does the genetic code
produce physical characteristics?
 A monk called Gregor Mendel made the first discovery of the
laws of heredity.
 People really didn’t know how inheritance worked but they
thought it must work by blending.
 For example, if a tall person has children with a short person,
their genes will be blended and the children will be of medium
height.
 This seemed to work with several characteristics such as height
and skin color. However, scientists didn’t have any other
explanation apart from blending hypothesis.
 Mendel’s peas. Historical artwork of the peas used by
Gregor Mendel in his experiments.

 He cross-bred peas that produced yellow and green peas. This

produces a generation in which the peas are all yellow. This is
because the color of the peas is controlled by an allele in which
yellow color is dominant.
 An allele is a pair of genes that have different effects on the
same characteristics, for instance controlling pea color.
 By breeding the C generation peas together, Mendel found that
next generation had a mixture of pea colors.
 What experiments did Mendel carry out?
 He cross-bred different types pf pea plants in the garden of
monastery. In total he planted 30,000 plants over eight years. He
crossed rounded seed pods with wrinkled ones, yellow peas with
green one, tall stems with dwarf stems and so on.
 What were Mendel’s conclusion?
 In every case, the offspring were just like the parent plant, for
example they were all tall. Then, when he allowed this offspring
generation to interbreed, he found out that dwarf plants
reappeared in the next generation.
 In other word, blending wasn’t taking place. Mendel argued that
factors (genes) were being passed on to next generation. Some
of these factors were being hidden and then reappearing in the
next generation.
 What happened to Mendel’s discoveries?
 In 1866 Mendel published his work clearly in THE PROCEEDINGS
OF THE BRUNN SOCIETY FOR NATURAL SCIENCE.
 He also sent his results and his ideas to a professor of botany in
Munich. However, the professor didn’t grasp the significance of
Mendel’s work. Mendel’s work remained unrecognized and he
gradually lost his interest in his gardens.
 Then, three different scientists Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and
Erich Von Tschemak independently re-discovered Mendel’s work
in 1900 and realized how important it was.
 In 1903 a scientist called Walter Sutton realized that
chromosomes behave just like Mendel’s “Factors”.
 Chromosomes come in pairs, one from each parent. In 1918, the
biologist Ronald Fischer realized that Mendel’s results could be
used to support Charles Darwin’s ideas of evolution.
 “Mendelism” , said fisher, ‘supplied the missing parts of the
structure erected by Darwin’.
 ALLELE: Different versions of the same gene (one from the father,
one from the mother)
 RECESSIVE: Hidden by a dominant allele. An allele that affects an
animal’s appearance only if it is present in the homozygous state.
 DOMINANT: An allele that always shows through. An allele that
causes the homozygous form and heterozygous form to look the
same as each other.
 HOMOZYGOUS: Two identical alleles for a particular characteristic in
each cell.
 HETEROZYGOUS: Two different alleles for a particular characteristic
in each cell.
 GENOTYPE: The ‘genetic makeup’ of a person- the genetic
information in the cell.
 PHENOTYPE: What you look like – the outward effect of the genetic
code on the body.
 PHENOTYPIC TRAITS: Physical Characteristics