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4. Theories on bilingualism (Madrid and Hughes, 2011: 20-28)
1. Balance theory
• It represents two languages coexisting in equilibrium, the second language increases
at expense of the first.
• Represented with an image of two linguistic balloons inside the head of the learner;
the monolingual individual has one large balloon whereas the bilingual individual has
two smaller ones (see Baker 1993:190).
• Cummins (1980, 1981): separate underlying model of bilingualism with the two
languages operating in isolation.
• Rejected by research studies: linguistic competence is transferred ad interactive.
L1
capacity L2
capacity
• When using two or more languages, ideas come from a common source.
• Individuals can function with two or more languages with relative ease.
• Cognitive functioning may be fed by monolingual or plurilingual channels.
• The language used by the learner must be developed to process the classroom cognitive
challenges.
• Listening, speaking, reading and writing in the L1 or L2 help the development of the cognitive
system as a whole.
• L2 negative attitudes and a limited competence level affects academic performance
negatively 3
Theories on bilingualism 3
3. Threshold theory
Cummins (1976) and Skutnabb-Kangas
(1979):
1st threshold
It has been represented as a house
1st floor Limited bilinguals
with three floors and two linguistic - Lowest level of competence.
ladders (L1 and L2) on each side - Cognitive negative effects.
(Baker 1993:194):
L1 L2
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Theories on bilingualism 4
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4. Types of bilingual education (Madrid and Hughes, 2011: 28-30)
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Types of bilingual education 2
2. Immersion programmes
• The objective is to promote the use of two languages at the same level in order to
maintain the status of bilingualism.
• Example: dual immersion programmes in Canada.
• Total immersion: 100% instruction in the L2 during the first two years, reduced to
80% in the three or four years following, and by the end of primary education 50% of
immersion in the L2.
• Partial immersion, offers 50% immersion in the L2 throughout kindergarten and
primary education.
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Types of bilingual education 3
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5.1. Negative effects of bilingual education
(Madrid and Hughes, 2011: 32)
Rossell and Baker (1996): the results of bilingual programmes are inferior to total
immersion programmes offered in the USA for ethnic minority groups.
Glen (1997): it is better for students to participate in sink-or-swim programmes
than in bilingual ones.
Some difficulties and problems:
• Abandonment of the L1 in favour of the L2.
• The mixture of L1 and L2 in a single system: problems of interference, particularly in
children in infancy.
• Possible negative linguistic and cognitive development.
• Difficulties in linguistic expression due to phonetic, semantic, lexical and
morphosyntactical interference from the L1 and L2.
• Written expression in L2 is often influenced by L1 as a result of lack of competence
in the second language.
• Anxiety, insecurity or frustration in oral communication in L2 with negative effects
in acquisition of written skills.
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5.2. Benefits of bilingual education
(Madrid and Hughes, 2011: 33-36)
• Peal and Lambert (1962) found a positive correlation between bilingualism and high
intelligence quotient, bilingualism helped mental agility and the formation of
abstract concepts.
• Byalistok (1991) and Diaz and Klingler (1991): positive relationship between
bilingual individuals and thought processes, organisation skills, reasoning and
visual and spatial skills.
• Considerable cognitive advantages (Cenoz 2003, Lasagaster 2000, Siguán 1986,
1992, 1996) and near native performance levels after 6-7 years of immersion.
• The competences in subjects taught in the L2 are similar to those acquired in L1
and there are no significant differences.
• The level of knowledge in L1 has a strong influence in the results obtained in L2
instruction (linguistic Interdependence hypothesis) (Chiswick 1991, Cummins 2000).
• Better intercultural education over the long term (González,Guillén,Vez 2010,
Riagáin/Lüdi 2003).
• It helps the learning of a third language (Lasagabaster 2007).
• Greater metalinguistic capacity than monolinguals (Galambos,Goldin-Meadow
1990).
• Greater attitudinal competence (savoir-être) towards languages than monolinguals.
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Some fundamental interacting variables in bilingual education
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Effective classroom techniques in bilingual education
(Snow 1990, Madrid y Hughes 2011, Madrid y Madrid 2013)
• Bilingualism and trilingualism has been intensely developed in the Spanish regions
with a co-official language (Muñoz 2005, Siguán 1992, Vila 1992).
• In Catalonia, the curriculum is taught predominantly in Catalonian.
• In the Basque Country, three models of bilingualism have been applied (see
Bilbatua 1992, Cenoz 2005, Etxeberría, 2003, Lasagabaster 2000, 2001, 2005):
– Teaching in Spanish with Basque being a separate language subject;
– Teaching in Basque and Spanish;
– Teaching of the curriculum in Basque (predominant)
• Galicia has introduced Galescolas, though Spanish still holds an important position
within the education system (Sobrado 2004).
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6.2. Andalusia
• The Plan de Fomento del Plurilingüismo: Una política lingüística para la sociedad
andaluza was established to promote plurilingualism in 2005 (BOJA nº 65, de 5 de
abril).
• Aims to provide the Andalusian population with sufficient plurilingual
competencies to deal with the technological, social and economic changes of
today’s society (see Barrios 2007, 2010; Madrid 2005, 2006).
• In June 2011), there were:
– 762 bilingual schools, 394 in the Primary sector and 368 in Secondary
Education.
– Most of them (693 schools) use English as a vehicular language for he
curriculum,
– 57 schools use French and 12 institutions use German.
– This means that 73560 students are receiving bilingual education in Andalusia.
– There are 4415 teachers implied in the project and 1234 native assistant
teachers.
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Effects and benefits of the Andalusian plurilingual programme
(Jaimez y López Morillas, 2011)
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