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Control
Module 2
Dr. Salih Duffuaa & Dr. Mohamed Ben Daya
Systems Engineering Department
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Training Objectives
• The overall objective of this program is to build
a strong learning base in the area of Statistical
Process Control (SPC) in order to sustain the
implementation of SPC and contribute to the
growth of the man-power in Quality Assurance
Laboratories and production.
• This require knowledge in basic statistics and
SPC tools and their interpretation.
Objectives (cont’d)
• Create a culture of continuous improvement.
• Analyze data.
1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Durability
4. Serviceability
5. Aesthetics
6. Features
7. Perceived Quality
8. Conformance to Standards
•This is a traditional definition
•Quality of design
•Quality of conformance
This is a modern definition of quality
How do we measure variability ?
The Transmission Example
• The transmission example illustrates the utility of this definition
• An equivalent definition is that quality improvement is the
elimination of waste. This is useful in service or transactional
businesses.
Terminology
Terminology cont’d
• Specifications
– Lower specification limit
– Upper specification limit
– Target or nominal values
• Defective or nonconforming product
• Defect or nonconformity
• Not all products containing a defect are
necessarily defective
1-2. History of Quality Improvement
Statistical Methods for Quality Improvement
Statistical Methods
• Statistical process control (SPC)
– Control charts, plus other problem-solving tools
– Useful in monitoring processes, reducing variability through
elimination of assignable causes
– On-line technique
• Designed experiments (DOX)
– Discovering the key factors that influence process
performance
– Process optimization
– Off-line technique
• Acceptance Sampling
Walter A. Shewart (1891-1967)
• Trained in engineering and physics
• Long career at Bell Labs
• Developed the first control chart
about 1924
A factorial experiment with three factors
Quality Philosophies and
Management Strategies
W. Edwards Deming
7 Quality Tools
Pareto chart
30 28
% Complaints
25
20
16
15
12 12
10
6
5 4 3
0
Loose Stitching Button Material
Threads flaws problems flaws
7 Quality Tools
Pareto Chart 70
(64)
60
40
30
20
(13)
(10)
10 (6)
(3) (2) (2)
0
25
20
Frequency
15
10
0
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 e
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. or
M
Category
7 Quality Tools
Histogram
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 1 2 6 13 10 16 19 17 12 16 20 17 13 5 6 2 1
Flowcharts
• Flowcharts
– Graphical description of how work is done.
– Used to describe processes that are to be improved.
7 Quality Tools
Flow Diagrams
" Draw a flowchart for whatever you do. Until
you do, you do not know what you are doing,
you just have a job.”
Yes
Decision
No
7 Quality Tools
Flowchart
Flow Diagrams
Process Chart Symbols
Operations
Inspection
Transportation
Delay
Storage
Check Sheet
Shifts
7 Quality Tools
Cause-and-Effect Diagrams
• Show the relationships between a problem and
its possible causes.
• Developed by Kaoru Ishikawa (1953)
• Also known as …
– Fishbone diagrams
– Ishikawa diagrams
7 Quality Tools
Cause and Effect “Skeleton”
Materials Procedures
Quality
Problem
People Equipment
7 Quality Tools
Fishbone Diagram
Measurement Human Machines
Quality
Inaccurate Problem
temperature Poor process
control Defective from vendor
design
Ineffective quality
Not to specifications management
Dust and
Dirt Material- Deficiencies
handling problems in product
design
Environment Materials Process
Cause and effect diagrams
• Advantages
– making the diagram is educational in itself
– diagram demonstrates knowledge of problem
solving team
– diagram results in active searches for causes
– diagram is a guide for data collection
Cause and effect diagrams
.
Run Charts
• Run Charts (time series plot)
– Examine the behavior of a variable over time.
– Basis for Control Charts
27
Control Chart
24
UCL = 23.35
21
Number of defects
18 c = 12.67
15
12
6
LCL = 1.99
3
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Sample number
Control Charts
• A process is operating with only chance causes of variation present is said to
be in statistical control.
• A process that is operating in the presence of assignable causes is said to be
out of control.
• A control chart contains
– A center line
– An upper control limit
– A lower control limit
• A point that plots within the
control limits indicates the process
is in control
– No action is necessary
• A point that plots outside the
control limits is evidence that the
process is out of control
– Investigation and corrective action
are required to find and eliminate
assignable cause(s)
• There is a close connection
between control charts and
hypothesis testing
Photolithography Example
• Important quality
characteristic in hard bake is
resist flow width
• Process is monitored by
average flow width
– Sample of 5 wafers
– Process mean is 1.5 microns
– Process standard deviation is
0.15 microns
• Note that all plotted points
fall inside the control limits
– Process is considered to be in
statistical control
Shewhart Control Chart Model
More Basic Principles
• Charts may be used to estimate process parameters,
which are used to determine capability
• Two general types of control charts
– Variables Continuous scale of measurement
• Quality characteristic described by central tendency and a measure of
variability
– Attributes
– Conforming/nonconforming
• Counts
• Control chart design encompasses selection of
sample size, control limits, and sampling frequency
Types of Process Variability
• Stationary and uncorrelated data vary around a fixed mean in a stable or
predictable manner
• Stationary and autocorrelated successive observations are dependent with
tendency to move in long runs on either side of mean
• Nonstationary process drifts without any sense of a stable or fixed mean
Reasons for Popularity
of Control Charts
1. Control charts are a proven technique for improving
productivity.
2. Control charts are effective in defect prevention.
3. Control charts prevent unnecessary process
adjustment.
4. Control charts provide diagnostic information.
5. Control charts provide information about process
capability.
• 3-Sigma Control Limits
– Probability of type I error is 0.0027
• Probability Limits
– Type I error probability is chosen directly
– For example, 0.001 gives 3.09-sigma control limits
• Warning Limits
– Typically selected as 2-sigma limits
• Pattern is very nonrandom in appearance
• 19 of 25 points plot below the center line, while only 6 plot
above
• Following 4th point, 5 points in a row increase in
magnitude, a run up
• There is also an unusually long run down beginning with
18th point
• Phase I is a retrospective analysis of process data to
construct trial control limits
– Charts are effective at detecting large, sustained shifts in
process parameters, outliers, measurement errors, data entry
errors, etc.
– Facilitates identification and removal of assignable causes
• In phase II, the control chart is used to monitor the
process
– Process is assumed to be reasonably stable
– Emphasis is on process monitoring, not on bringing an
unruly process into control
SPC Implementation Issues
• Define process
• Chose Quality characteristic and measurement
system
• Focus on trends and shifts
• Calculate control charts limits.
• Investigate and act
• SPC training
• Nonmanufacturing applications do not differ
substantially from industrial applications, but
sometimes require ingenuity
1. Most nonmanufacturing operations do not have a natural
measurement system
2. The observability of the process may be fairly low
• Flow charts and operation process charts are
particularly useful in developing process definition
and process understanding. This is sometimes called
process mapping.
– Used to identify value-added versus nonvalue-added
activity