Ais10 ch06

HAPTER 6
Control and Accounting

Information Systems
INTRODUCTION
• Questions to be addressed in this chapter:
– What are the basic internal control concepts, and why are
computer control and security important?
– What is the difference between the COBIT, COSO, and ERM
control frameworks?
– What are the major elements in the internal environment of a
company?
– What are the four types of control objectives that companies
need to set?
– What events affect uncertainty, and how can they be identified?
– How is the Enterprise Risk Management model used to assess
and respond to risk?
– What control activities are commonly used in companies?
– How do organizations communicate information and monitor
control processes?
© 2006 Prentice Hall Business Publishing Accounting Information Systems, 10/e Romney/Steinbart 2 of 314
INTRODUCTION
• Why AIS Threats Are Increasing

– Control risks have increased in the last few years
because:
• There are computers and servers everywhere, and
information is available to an unprecedented number of
workers.
• Distributed computer networks make data available to many
users, and these networks are harder to control than
centralized mainframe systems.
• Wide area networks are giving customers and suppliers
access to each other’s systems and data, making
confidentiality a major concern.
INTRODUCTION
• Historically, many organizations have not adequately
protected their data due to one or more of the following
reasons:
– Computer control problems are often underestimated and
downplayed.
– Control implications of moving from centralized, host-based
computer systems to those of a networked system or Internet-
based system are not always fully understood.
– Companies have not realized that data is a strategic resource
and that data security must be a strategic requirement.
– Productivity and cost pressures may motivate management to
forego time-consuming control measures.
INTRODUCTION
• Some vocabulary terms for this chapter:

– A threat is any potential adverse occurrence
or unwanted event that could injure the AIS or
the organization.
– The exposure or impact of the threat is the
potential dollar loss that would occur if the
threat becomes a reality.
– The likelihood is the probability that the
threat will occur.
INTRODUCTION
• Control and Security are Important

– Companies are now recognizing the problems and
taking positive steps to achieve better control,
including:
• Devoting full-time staff to security and control concerns.
• Educating employees about control measures.
• Establishing and enforcing formal information security
policies.
• Making controls a part of the applications development
process.
• Moving sensitive data to more secure environments.
INTRODUCTION
• To use IT in achieving control objectives,

accountants must:
– Understand how to protect systems from
threats.
– Have a good understanding of IT and its
capabilities and risks.
• Achieving adequate security and control
over the information resources of an
organization should be a top management
priority.
INTRODUCTION
• Control objectives are the same regardless of

the data processing method, but a computer-
based AIS requires different internal control
policies and procedures because:
– Computer processing may reduce clerical errors but
increase risks of unauthorized access or modification
of data files.
– Segregation of duties must be achieved differently in
an AIS.
– Computers provide opportunities for enhancement of
some internal controls.
INTRODUCTION
• One of the primary objectives of an AIS is to

control a business organization.
– Accountants must help by designing effective control
systems and auditing or reviewing control systems
already in place to ensure their effectiveness.
• Management expects accountants to be control
consultants by:
– Taking a proactive approach to eliminating system
threats; and
– Detecting, correcting, and recovering from threats
when they do occur.
INTRODUCTION
• It is much easier to build controls into a

system during the initial stage than to add
them after the fact.
• Consequently, accountants and control
experts should be members of the teams
that develop or modify information
systems.
OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS
• In today’s dynamic business environment,

companies must react quickly to changing
conditions and markets, including steps to:
– Hire creative and innovative employees.
– Give these employees power and flexibility to:
• Satisfy changing customer demands;
• Pursue new opportunities to add value to the organization;
and
• Implement process improvements.
• At the same time, the company needs control
systems so they are not exposed to excessive
risks or behaviors that could harm their
reputation for honesty and integrity.
• Internal control is the process implemented by the

board of directors, management, and those under their
direction to provide reasonable assurance that the
following control objectives are achieved:
– Assets (including data) are safeguarded.
• This objective includes prevention or timely
detection of unauthorized acquisition, use, or
disposal of material company assets.

– Records are maintained in sufficient detail to accurately and
fairly reflect company assets.

– Accurate and reliable information is provided.

– There is reasonable assurance that financial reports are
prepared in accordance with GAAP.

– Operational efficiency is promoted and improved.
• This objective includes ensuring that company
receipts and expenditures are made in accordance
with management and directors’ authorizations.

– Adherence to prescribed managerial policies is encouraged.

– Adherence to prescribed managerial policies is encouraged.
– The organization complies with applicable laws and
regulations.
• Internal control is a process because:

– It permeates an organization’s operating activities.
– It is an integral part of basic management activities.
• Internal control provides reasonable, rather than
absolute, assurance, because complete
assurance is difficult or impossible to achieve
and prohibitively expensive.
• Internal control systems have inherent

limitations, including:
– They are susceptible to errors and poor decisions.
– They can be overridden by management or by
collusion of two or more employees.
• Internal control objectives are often at odds with
each other.
– EXAMPLE: Controls to safeguard assets may also
reduce operational efficiency.
• Internal controls perform three important

functions:
– Preventive controls
• Deter problems before they arise.

functions:
– Detective controls
• Discover problems quickly when they do arise.

functions:
– Detective controls
– Corrective controls
• Remedy problems that have occurred by:
– Identifying the cause;
– Correcting the resulting errors; and
– Modifying the system to prevent future
problems of this sort.
• Internal controls are often classified as:

– General controls
• Those designed to make sure an
organization’s control environment is stable
and well managed.
• They apply to all sizes and types of systems.
• Examples: Security management controls.
• Internal controls are often classified as:

– General controls
– Application controls
• Prevent, detect, and correct transaction errors
and fraud.
• Are concerned with accuracy, completeness,
validity, and authorization of the data captured,
entered into the system, processed, stored,
transmitted to other systems, and reported.
• An effective system of internal controls

should exist in all organizations to:
– Help them achieve their missions and goals
– Minimize surprises
SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT
PRACTICES ACT
• In 1977, Congress passed the Foreign Corrupt
Practices Act, and to the surprise of the profession, this
act incorporated language from an AICPA
pronouncement.
• The primary purpose of the act was to prevent the
bribery of foreign officials to obtain business.
• A significant effect was to require that corporations
maintain good systems of internal accounting control.
– Generated significant interest among management, accountants,
and auditors in designing and evaluating internal control
systems.
– The resulting internal control improvements weren’t sufficient.
PRACTICES ACT
• In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a series
of multi-million-dollar accounting frauds
made headlines.
– The impact on financial markets was
substantial, and Congress responded with
passage of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002
(aka, SOX).
• Applies to publicly held companies and their
auditors
PRACTICES ACT
• The intent of SOX is to:
– Prevent financial statement fraud
– Make financial reports more transparent
– Protect investors
– Strengthen internal controls in publicly-held
companies
– Punish executives who perpetrate fraud
• SOX has had a material impact on the way
boards of directors, management, and
accountants operate.
PRACTICES ACT
• Important aspects of SOX include:
– Creation of the Public Company Accounting
Oversight Board (PCAOB) to oversee the auditing
profession.
• Has five members, three of whom cannot be
CPAs.
• Charges fees to firms to fund the PCAOB.
• Sets and enforces auditing, quality control,
ethics, independence, and other standards
relating to audit reports.
• Currently recognizes FASB statements as
being generally accepted.
PRACTICES ACT
– Creation of the Public Company Accounting Oversight
Board (PCAOB) to oversee the auditing profession.
– New rules for auditors
• They must report specific information to the company’s audit

committee, such as:
– Critical accounting policies and practices
– Alternative GAAP treatments
– Auditor-management disagreements
• Audit partners must be rotated periodically.
PRACTICES ACT
• Auditors cannot perform certain non-audit services, such as:

– Bookkeeping
– Information systems design and implementation
– Internal audit outsourcing services
– Management functions
– Human resource services
PRACTICES ACT
• Permissible non-audit services must be approved by the

board of directors and disclosed to investors.
• Cannot audit a company if a member of top management was
employed by the auditor and worked on the company’s audit
in the past 12 months.
PRACTICES ACT
– New rules for audit committees
• Members must be on the company’s board

of directors and must otherwise be
independent of the company.
• One member must be a financial expert.
• The committee hires, compensates, and
oversees the auditors, and the auditors
report directly to the committee.
• The CEO andPRACTICES ACT
CFO must certify that:
– The financial statements and disclosures are fairly
• Important aspects
presented, of SOXbyinclude:
were reviewed management, and are not
misleading.
– Management
Board (PCAOB)isto responsible for internal
oversee the auditingcontrols.
profession.
– The auditors were advised of any material internal control
weaknesses or fraud.
– New rules
– Any for audit
significant committees
changes to controls after management’s
– Newevaluation
rules for were disclosed and corrected.
management
PRACTICES ACT
• If management willfully and knowingly violates the
• certification,
Important they canofbe:
aspects SOX include:
– Imprisoned up to 20 years.
– Fined up to $5 million.
• Management and directors cannot receive loans that would not
– New rules for
be available auditors
to people outside the company.
•– New
They rules for auditoncommittees
must disclose a rapid and current basis material
changes to their financial condition.
– New rules for management
PRACTICES
• New internal ACT
control requirements:
– Section 404 of SOX requires companies to issue a
• report accompanying the financial statements that:
Important aspects of SOX include:
• States management is responsible for
– Creation of the Public Company
establishing Accounting
and maintaining Oversight
an adequate internal
Board (PCAOB) to oversee
control structure the
and auditing profession.
procedures.
– New rules for
• Contains
auditorsmanagement’s assessment of the
company’s internal controls.
• Attests to the accuracy of the internal controls,
– New rules forincluding
management
disclosures of significant defects or
– New internalmaterial
controlnoncompliance
requirements found during the tests.
PRACTICES ACT
• SOX also requires that the auditor attests to and reports
on management’s internal control assessment.
– New• rules
Eachfor management
audit report must describe the scope of the
auditor’scontrol
– New internal internal requirements
control tests.
PRACTICES ACT
• After the passage of SOX, the SEC further
mandated that:
– Management must base its evaluation on a
recognized control framework, developed using a
due-process procedure that allows for public
comment. The most likely framework is the COSO
model discussed later in the chapter.
– The report must contain a statement identifying the
framework used.
– Management must disclose any and all material
internal control weaknesses.
– Management cannot conclude that the company has
effective internal control if there are any material
weaknesses.
PRACTICES ACT
• Levers of Control
– Many people feel
• Communicates there core
company is a values
basictoconflict
employees and
between creativity
inspires and
them to live controls.
by them.
• Draws attention to how the organization creates value.
– Robert Simons has espoused four levers of
• Helps employees understand management’s intended
controls to help companies reconcile this
direction.
conflict:
• Must be broad enough to appeal to all levels.
• A concise belief system
PRACTICES
• Helps employees act ethicallyACT
by setting limits beyond
which they must not pass.
• Levers
• Does ofnotControl
create rules and standard operating
procedures that can stifle creativity.
– Many people feel there is a basic conflict
• Encourages employees to think and act creatively to
between creativity
solve problems and and
meet controls.
customer needs as long as
they operate within limits such as:
– Robert Simons has espoused four levers of
– Meeting minimum standards of performance
controls to help
– Shunning companies
off-limits activitiesreconcile this
conflict:
– Avoiding actions that could damage the company’s
reputation.
• A boundary system
PRACTICES ACT
• Levers of Control
– Many
• Ensures
people feeland
efficient there is a achievement
effective basic conflict
of important
controls.
between creativity and controls.
• This system measures company progress by comparing
– Robert
actualSimons has
to planned espoused four levers of
performance.
• Helps to
controls managers track critical performance
help companies reconcile outcomes
this
and monitor performance of individuals, departments,
conflict:
and locations.
•• AProvides
concise feedback
belief system
to enable management to adjust and
• Afine-tune.
boundary system
• A diagnostic control system
• Helps top-level
PRACTICES ACT
managers with high-level activities that
demand frequent and regular attention. Examples:
– Developing company strategy.
• Levers– of Control
Setting company objectives.
– Many– people feel there
Understanding is a basic
and assessing conflict
threats and risks.
between– Monitoring
creativity and incontrols.
changes competitive conditions and
emerging technologies.
– Robert Simons has
– Developing espoused
responses fourplans
and action levers
to of
controlsproactively
to help deal
companies
with these reconcile this
high-level issues.
• Also helps managers focus the attention of subordinates
conflict:
on key strategic issues and to be more involved in their
decisions.
• •A boundary system
Data from this system are best interpreted and
discussed in face-to-face meetings.
• A diagnostic control system
• An interactive control system
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• A number of frameworks have been

developed to help companies develop
good internal control systems. Three
of the most important are:
– The COBIT framework
– The COSO internal control framework
– COSO’s Enterprise Risk Management
framework (ERM)
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS

framework (ERM)
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• COBIT Framework
– Also know as the Control Objectives for
Information and Related Technology
framework.
– Developed by the Information Systems Audit
and Control Foundation (ISACF).
– A framework of generally applicable
information systems security and control
practices for IT control.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• The COBIT framework allows:

– Management to benchmark security and
control practices of IT environments.
– Users of IT services to be assured that
adequate security and control exists.
– Auditors to substantiate their opinions on
internal control and advise on IT security and
control matters.
• To satisfy business objectives,
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
information must conform to
certain criteria referred to as
“business requirements for
• The framework addresses information.”
the issue of
• The criteria are divided into
control from three vantage
sevenpoints oroverlapping
distinct yet
dimensions: categories that map into COSO
objectives:
– Business objectives – Effectiveness (relevant,
pertinent, and timely)
– Efficiency
– Confidentiality
– Integrity
– Availability
– Compliance with legal
requirements
– Reliability
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• The framework addresses the issue of

control from three vantage points or
dimensions:
– Business objectives
– IT resources • Includes:
• People
• Application systems
• Technology
• Facilities
• Data
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• The framework addresses the issue of

control from three vantage points or
dimensions:
– Business objectives
– IT resources
– IT processes • Broken into four domains
– Planning and organization
– Acquisition and implementation
– Delivery and support
– Monitoring
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• COBIT consolidates standards from 36 different

sources into a single framework.
• It is having a big impact on the IS profession.
– Helps managers to learn how to balance risk and
control investment in an IS environment.
– Provides users with greater assurance that security
and IT controls provided by internal and third parties
are adequate.
– Guides auditors as they substantiate their opinions
and provide advice to management on internal
controls.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS

framework (ERM)
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• COSO’s Internal Control Framework

– The Committee of Sponsoring Organizations
(COSO) is a private sector group consisting
of:
• The American Accounting Association
• The AICPA
• The Institute of Internal Auditors
• The Institute of Management Accountants
• The Financial Executives Institute
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• In 1992, COSO issued the Internal

Control Integrated Framework:
– Defines internal controls.
– Provides guidance for evaluating and
enhancing internal control systems.
– Widely accepted as the authority on internal
controls.
– Incorporated into policies, rules, and
regulations used to control business activities.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• COSO’s internal control model has five

crucial components:
- Control environment
• The core of any business is its people.
• Their integrity, ethical values, and competence make
up the foundation on which everything else rests.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS

crucial components:
- Control activities
• Policies and procedures must be established and
executed to ensure that actions identified by
management as necessary to address risks are, in
fact, carried out.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS

crucial components:
- Risk assessment
• The organization must be aware of and deal with the
risks it faces.
• It must set objectives for its diverse activities and
establish mechanisms to identify, analyze, and
manage the related risks.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS

crucial components:
- Risk assessment
- Information and communication
• Information and communications systems surround the
control activities.
• They enable the organization’s people to capture and
exchange information needed to conduct, manage, and
control its operations.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS

crucial components:
- Risk assessment
- Information and communication
- Monitoring
• The entire process must be monitored and modified
as necessary.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS

framework (ERM)
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• Nine years after COSO issued the preceding

framework, it began investigating how to
effectively identify, assess, and manage risk so
organizations could improve the risk
management process.
• Result: Enterprise Risk Manage Integrated
Framework (ERM)
– An enhanced corporate governance document.
– Expands on elements of preceding framework.
– Provides a focus on the broader subject of enterprise
risk management.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• Intent of ERM is to achieve all goals of the

internal control framework and help the
organization:
– Provide reasonable assurance that company
objectives and goals are achieved and problems and
surprises are minimized.
– Achieve its financial and performance targets.
– Assess risks continuously and identify steps to take
and resources to allocate to overcome or mitigate
risk.
– Avoid adverse publicity and damage to the entity’s
reputation.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• ERM defines risk management as:

– A process effected by an entity’s board of
directors, management, and other personnel
– Applied in strategy setting and across the
enterprise
– To identify potential events that may affect the
entity
– And manage risk to be within its risk appetite
– In order to provide reasonable assurance of
the achievement of entity objectives.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• Basic principles behind ERM:

– Companies are formed to create value for
owners.
– Management must decide how much
uncertainty they will accept.
– Uncertainty can result in:
• Risk
• The possibility that something will happen to:
– Adversely affect the ability to create value; or
– Erode existing value.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• Basic principles behind ERM:

– Companies are formed to create value for
owners.
– Management must decide how much
uncertainty they will accept.
– Uncertainty can result in:
• Risk
• Opportunity
• The possibility that something will happen to
positively affect the ability to create or preserve
value.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
– The framework should help management

manage uncertainty and its associated risk to
build and preserve value.
– To maximize value, a company must balance
its growth and return objectives and risks with
efficient and effective use of company
resources.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• COSO developed a
model to illustrate
the elements of
ERM.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• Columns at the top

represent the four types of
objectives that
management must meet to
achieve company goals.
– Strategic objectives
• Strategic objectives are
high-level goals that are
aligned with and support
the company’s mission.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• Columns at the top

represent the four types of
objectives that
– Strategic objectives
– Operations objectives
• Operations objectives deal with
effectiveness and efficiency of
company operations, such as:
– Performance and
profitability goals
– Safeguarding assets
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• Reporting objectives help
ensure the accuracy,
• Columns at the and
completeness, top reliability of
internal and
represent theexternal company
four types of
reports of both a financial and
objectives that
non-financial nature.
• Improve decision-making and
achieve
monitorcompany goals. and
company activities
–performance
Strategic objectives
more efficiently.
– Reporting objectives
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• • Columns at the
Compliance top
objectives help the
company the
represent comply
fourwith
types of
applicable laws and
objectives
regulations.
that
– External parties often set
the compliance rules.
– –Strategic objectives
Companies in the same
industry often have similar
– Reporting
concerns in this area.
objectives
– Compliance objectives
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• ERM can provide reasonable
assurance that reporting and
compliance objectives will be
achieved because companies
have control over them.
• However, strategic and
operations objectives are
sometimes at the mercy of
external events that the
company can’t control.
• Therefore, in these areas, the
only reasonable assurance the
ERM can provide is that
management and directors are
informed on a timely basis of the
progress the company is making
in achieving them.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• Columns on the
right represent the
company’s units:
– Entire company
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• Columns on the
right represent the
company’s units:
– Entire company
– Division
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• Columns on the
right represent the
company’s units:
– Entire company
– Division
– Business unit
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• Columns on the
right represent the
company’s units:
– Entire company
– Division
– Business unit
– Subsidiary
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• The horizontal rows are

eight related risk and
control components,
including:
– Internal environment
• The tone or culture of the
company.
• Provides discipline and
structure and is the foundation
for all other components.
• Essentially the same as control
environment in the COSO
internal control framework.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS

control components,
including:
– Objective setting
• Ensures that management implements a process to formulate

strategic, operations, reporting, and compliance objectives that
support the company’s mission and are consistent with the company’s
tolerance for risk.
• Strategic objectives are set first as a foundation for the other three.
• The objectives provide guidance to companies as they identify risk-
creating events and assess and respond to those risks.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS

control components,
including:
– Event identification
• Requires management to identify events that may affect the company’s
ability to implement its strategy and achieve its objectives.
• Management must then determine whether these events represent:
– Risks (negative-impact events requiring assessment and
response); or
– Opportunities (positive-impact events that influence strategy and
objective-setting processes).
• Identified risks are assessed to
determine how to manage them
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS and how they affect the
company’s ability to achieve its
objectives.
• Qualitative
• The horizontaland quantitative
rows are
methods
eight arerisk
related used
andto assess
risks individually and by
control components,
category in terms of:
including:
– Likelihood
– Positive and negative
– Objective
impactsetting
– Effect on other
– Riskorganizational
assessment units
• Risks are analyzed on an
inherent and a residual basis.
• Corresponds to the risk
assessment element in COSO’s
internal control framework.
• Management aligns identified risks
with the company’s tolerance for
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS risk by choosing to:
– Avoid
– Reduce
– Share
– Accept
control components,
• Management
including: takes an entity-wide
or portfolio view of risks in
– Internalthe
assessing environment
likelihood of the
– Objective
risks, setting impact, and
their potential
costs-benefits of alternate
responses.
– Risk assessment
– Risk response
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• •TheTohorizontal
implement rows
management’s
are
riskrelated
eight responses,
risk control
and policies
and procedures are established
control components,
and implemented throughout
including:
the various levels and
functions of the organization.
•– Objective setting
Corresponds to the control
– activities element in the COSO
Event identification
– internal control framework.
Risk assessment
– Risk response
– Control activities
• Information about the company
and ERM components must be
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS identified, captured, and
communicated so employees
can fulfill their responsibilities.
• •TheInformation
horizontalmust rows beare
able to
flowrelated
eight throughriskall levels
and and
functions in the company as
control
well ascomponents,
flowing to and from
including:
external parties.
• – Employees
Internal environment
should understand
– their role and
Objective importance in
setting
– ERM
Eventand how these
identification
responsibilities relate to those
– Risk assessment
of others.
– Risk response
• Has a corresponding element
– in
Control activities
the COSO internal control
– framework.
Information and
communication
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS

•control
ERM processes
components,must be
monitored on an ongoing basis
including:
and modified as needed.
• Accomplished with ongoing
management activities and
separate evaluations.
•– Risk assessment
Deficiencies are reported to
– management.
Risk response
•– Corresponding
Control activitiesmodule in
– COSO internal
Information andcontrol
framework.
communication
– Monitoring
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• The ERM model is

three-dimensional.
• Means that each of
the eight risk and
control elements are
applied to the four
objectives in the
entire company
and/or one of its
subunits.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• ERM Framework
• Examining Vs. the
controls without first Internal
examining purposes and
risks of
Control business processes provides little context for
Framework
evaluating the results.
– The internal
• Makes control
it difficult framework has been
to know:
– Which
widely adopted
controlas the principal
systems way to
are most important.
– Whether
evaluate they adequately
internal controlsdeal
as with risk.
required by SOX.
– Whether important control systems are missing.
However, there are issues with it.
• It has too narrow of a focus.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• ERM Framework Vs. the Internal

Control Framework
– The internal control framework has been
widely adopted as the principal way to
• May contribute to systems with
evaluate internal controls as required by
many controls to protect
SOX.
However, there are issues with
against it. that are no longer
risks
important.
• It has too narrow of a focus.
• Focusing on controls first has an inherent bias
toward past problems and concerns.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• These issues led to COSO’s development of the

ERM framework.
– Takes a risk-based, rather than controls-based,
approach to the organization.
– Oriented toward future and constant change.
– Incorporates rather than replaces COSO’s internal
control framework and contains three additional
elements:
• Setting objectives.
• Identifying positive and negative events that may affect the
company’s ability to implement strategy and achieve
objectives.
• Developing a response to assessed risk.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
– Controls are flexible and relevant because

they are linked to current organizational
objectives.
– ERM also recognizes more options than
simply controlling risk, which include
accepting it, avoiding it, diversifying it, sharing
it, or transferring it.
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
• Over time, ERM will probably become the

most widely adopted risk and control
model.
• Consequently, its eight components are
the topic of the remainder of the chapter.
INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
• The most critical component
of the ERM and the internal
control framework.
• Is the foundation on which the
other seven components rest.
• Influences how organizations:
– Establish strategies and
objectives
– Structure business activities
– Identify, access, and respond
to risk
• A deficient internal control
environment often results in
risk management and control
breakdowns.
• Internal environment consists of the following:

– Management’s philosophy, operating style, and risk
appetite
– The board of directors
– Commitment to integrity, ethical values, and
competence
– Organizational structure
– Methods of assigning authority and responsibility
– Human resource standards
– External influences

– Management’s philosophy, operating style, and
risk appetite
competence
• Management’s Philosophy, Operating Style,

and Risk Appetite
– An organization’s management has shared beliefs
and attitudes about risk.
– That philosophy affects everything the organization
does, long- and short-term, and affects their
communications.
– Companies also have a risk appetite, which is the
amount of risk a company is willing to accept to
achieve its goals and objectives.
– That appetite needs to be in alignment with company
strategy.
– The more responsible management’s

philosophy and operating style, the more
likely employees will behave responsibly.
– This philosophy must be clearly
communicated to all employees; it is not
enough to give lip service.
– Management must back up words with
actions; if they show little concern for internal
controls, then neither will employees.
– This component can be assessed by asking

questions such as:
• Does management take undue business risks or
assess potential risks and rewards before acting?
• Does management attempt to manipulate
performance measures such as net income?
• Does management pressure employees to achieve
results regardless of methods or do they demand
ethical behavior?

appetite
competence
• The Board of Directors

– An active and involved board of directors
plays an important role in internal control.
– They should:
• Oversee management
• Scrutinize management’s plans, performance, and
activities
• Approve company strategy
• Review financial results
• Annually review the company’s security policy
• Interact with internal and external auditors
• Directors should possess management,

technical, or other expertise, knowledge,
or experience, as well as a willingness to
advocate for shareholders.
• At least a majority should be independent,
outside directors not affiliated with the
company or any of its subsidiaries.
• Public companies must have an audit
committee, composed entirely of independent,
outside directors.
– The audit committee oversees:
• The company’s internal control structure;
• Its financial reporting process;
• Its compliance with laws, regulations, and standards.
– Works with the corporation’s external and internal
auditors.
• Hires, compensates, and oversees the auditors.
• Auditors report all critical accounting policies and practices to
the audit committee.
– Provides an independent review of management’s
actions.

appetite
competence
• Commitment to Integrity, Ethical

Values, and Competence
– Management must create an organizational
culture that stresses integrity and commitment
to both ethical values and competence.
• Ethical standards of behavior make for good
business.
• Tone at the top is everything.
• Employees will watch the actions of the CEO, and
the message of those actions (good or bad) will
tend to permeate the organization.
• Companies can endorse integrity as a basic
operating principle by actively teaching and
requiring it.
– Management should:
• Make it clear that honest reports are more important than
favorable ones.
– Management should avoid:
• Unrealistic expectations, incentives or temptations.
• Attitude of earnings or revenue at any price.
• Overly aggressive sales practices.
• Unfair or unethical negotiation practices.
• Implied kickback offers.
• Excessive bonuses.
• Bonus plans with upper and lower cutoffs.
• Management should not assume that employees

would always act honestly.
– Consistently reward and encourage honesty.
– Give verbal labels to honest and dishonest acts.
– The combination of these two will produce more
consistent moral behavior.
• Management should develop clearly stated

policies that explicitly describe honest and
dishonest behaviors, often in the form of a
written code of conduct.
– In particular, such a code would cover issues that are
uncertain or unclear.
– Dishonesty often appears when situations are gray
and employees rationalize the most expedient action
as opposed to making a right vs. wrong choice.
• SOX only requires a code of ethics for senior

financial management. However, the ACFE
suggests that companies create a code of
conduct for all employees:
– Should be written at a fifth-grade level.
– Should be reviewed annually with employees and
signed.
– This approach helps employees keep themselves out
of trouble.
– Helps the company if they need to take legal action
against the employee.
• Management should require employees to report
dishonest, illegal, or unethical behavior and discipline
employees who knowingly fail to report.
– Reports of dishonest acts should be thoroughly investigated.
– Those found guilty should be dismissed.
– Prosecution should be undertaken when possible, so that other
employees are clear about consequences.
• Companies must make a commitment to competence.
– Begins with having competent employees.
– Varies with each job but is a function of knowledge, experience,
training, and skills.
• The levers of control, particularly beliefs

and boundaries systems, can be used to
create the kind of commitment to integrity
an organization wants.
– Requires more than lip service and signing
forms.
– Must be systems in which top management
actively participates in order to:
• Demonstrate the importance of the system.
• Create buy-in and a team spirit.
• Management should require employees to

report dishonest, illegal, or unethical
behavior and discipline employees who
knowingly fail to report.
– Reports of dishonest acts should be
thoroughly investigated.
– Those found guilty should be dismissed.
– Prosecution should be undertaken when
possible, so that other employees are clear
about consequences.
• Companies must make a commitment to

competence.
– Begins with having competent employees.
– Varies with each job but is a function of
knowledge, experience, training, and skills.
• The levers of control, particularly beliefs

and boundary systems, can be used to
create the kind of commitment to integrity
an organization wants.
– Requires more than lip service and signing
forms.
– Must be systems in which top management
actively participates in order to:
• Demonstrate the importance of the system.
• Create buy-in and a team spirit.

appetite
competence
• Organizational Structure
– A company’s organizational structure defines
its lines of authority, responsibility, and
reporting.
• Provides the overall framework for planning,
directing, executing, controlling, and monitoring its
operations.
• Important aspects or organizational structure:

– Degree of centralization or decentralization.
– Assignment of responsibility for specific tasks.
– Direct-reporting relationships or matrix structure
– Organization by industry, product, geographic
location, marketing network
– How the responsibility allocation affects
management’s information needs
– Organization of accounting and IS functions
– Size and nature of company activities
• Statistically fraud occurs more frequently

in organizations with complex structures
– The structures may unintentionally impede
communication and clear assignment of
responsibility, making fraud easier to commit
and conceal; or
– The structure may be intentionally complex to
facilitate the fraud.
• In today’s business world, the hierarchical

organizations with many layers of management
are giving way to flatter organizations with self-
directed work teams.
– Team members are empowered to make decisions
without multiple layers of approvals.
– Emphasis is on continuous improvement rather than
on regular evaluations.
– These changes have a significant impact on the
nature and type of controls needed.

appetite
competence
• Methods of Assigning Authority and
Responsibility
– Management should make sure:
• Employees understand the entity’s objectives
• Authority and responsibility for business objectives is
assigned to specific departments and individuals
– Ownership of responsibility encourages employees to
take initiative in solving problems and holds them
accountable for achieving objectives.
– Management:
• Must be sure to identify who is responsible for the IS security
policy.
• Should monitor results so decisions can be reviewed and, if
necessary, overruled.
• Authority and responsibility are assigned through:
– Formal job descriptions
– Employee training
– Operating plans, schedules, and budgets
– Codes of conduct that define ethical behavior, acceptable
practices, regulatory requirements, and conflicts of interest
– Written policies and procedures manuals (a good job reference
and job training tool) which covers:
• Proper business practices
• Knowledge and experience needed by key personnel
• Resources provided to carry out duties
• Policies and procedures for handling particular transactions
• The organization’s chart of accounts
• Sample copies of forms and documents

appetite
competence
• Human Resources Standards

– Employees are both the company’s greatest control
strength and the greatest control weakness.
– Organizations can implement human resource
policies and practices with respect to hiring, training,
compensating, evaluating, counseling, promoting, and
discharging employees that send messages about the
level of competence and ethical behavior required.
– Policies on working conditions, incentives, and career
advancement can powerfully encourage efficiency
and loyalty and reduce the organization’s vulnerability.
• The following policies and procedures are

important:
– Hiring
– Compensating
– Training
– Evaluating and promoting
– Discharging
– Managing disgruntled employees
– Vacations and rotation of duties
– Confidentiality insurance and fidelity bonds

important:
– Hiring
– Compensating
– Training
– Discharging
• Hiring
– Should be based on educational background,
relevant work experience, past achievements,
honesty and integrity, and how well
candidates meet written job requirements.
– Employees should undergo a formal, in-depth
employment interview.
– Resumes, reference letters, and thorough
background checks are critical.
• Background checks can involve:

– Verifying education and experience
– Talking with references
– Checking for criminal records, credit issues, and other
publicly available data.
– Note that you must have the employee’s or
candidate’s written permission to conduct a
background check, but that permission does not need
to have an expiration date.
– Background checks are important because recent
studies show that about 50% of resumes have been
falsified or embellished.
• Sometimes professional firms are hired to do the
background checks because applicants are
becoming more aggressive in their deceptions.
– Some get phony degrees from online “diploma mills.”
• A Pennsylvania district attorney recently filed suit against a
Texas “university” for issuing an MBA to the DA’s 6-year-old
black cat.
– Others actually hack (or hire someone to hack) into
the systems of universities to create or alter
transcripts and other academic data.
• No employee should be exempted from
background checks. Anyone from the custodian
to the company president is capable of
committing fraud, sabotage, etc

important:
– Hiring
– Compensating
– Training
– Discharging
• Compensating
– Employees should be paid a fair and
competitive wage.
– Poorly compensated employees are more
likely to feel the resentment and financial
pressures that lead to fraud.
– Appropriate incentives can motivate and
reinforce outstanding performance.

important:
– Hiring
– Compensating
– Training
– Discharging
• Policies on Training
– Training programs should familiarize new employees
with:
• Their responsibilities.
• Expected performance and behavior.
• Company policies, procedures, history, culture, and operating
style.
– Training needs to be ongoing, not just one-time.
– Companies who shortchange training are more likely
to experience security breaches and fraud.
– Many believe employee training and

education are the most important elements of
fraud prevention and security programs.
– Fraud is less likely to occur when employees
believe security is everyone’s business.
– An ideal corporate culture exists when:
• Employees are proud of their company and
protective of its assets.
• They believe fraud hurts everyone and that they
therefore have a responsibility to report it.
• These cultures do not just happen. They must

be created, taught, and practiced, and the
following training should be provided:
– Fraud awareness
• Employees should be aware of fraud’s prevalence and
dangers, why people do it, and how to deter and detect it.
– Ethical considerations
• The company should promote ethical standards in its practice
and its literature.
• Acceptable and unacceptable behavior should be defined
and labeled, leaving as little gray area as possible.
– Punishment for fraud and unethical behavior.

• Employees should know the consequences (e.g.,
reprimand, dismissal, prosecution) of bad behavior.
• Should be disseminated as a consequence rather
than a threat.
• EXAMPLE: “Using a computer to steal or commit
fraud is a federal crime, and anyone doing so
faces immediate dismissal and/or prosecution.”
• The company should display notices of program
and data ownership and advise employees of the
penalties of misuse.
• Training can take place through:

– Informal discussions
– Formal meetings
– Periodic memos
– Written guidelines
– Codes of ethics
– Circulating reports of unethical behavior and
its consequences
– Promoting security and fraud training
programs

important:
– Hiring
– Compensating
– Training
– Discharging
• Evaluating and promoting

– Do periodic performance appraisals to help
employees understand their strengths and
weaknesses.
– Base promotions on performance and
qualifications.

important:
– Hiring
– Compensating
– Training
– Discharging
• Discharging
– Fired employees are disgruntled employees.
– Disgruntled employees are more likely to
commit a sabotage or fraud against the
company.
– Employees who are terminated (whether
voluntary or involuntary) should be removed
from sensitive jobs immediately and denied
access to information systems.

important:
– Hiring
– Compensating
– Training
– Discharging
• Managing disgruntled employees

– Disgruntled employees may be isolated and/or
unhappy, but are much likelier fraud candidates than
satisfied employees.
– The organization can try to reduce the employee’s
pressures through grievance channels and
counseling.
• Difficult to do because many employees feel that seeking
counseling will stigmatize them in their jobs.
– Disgruntled employees should not be allowed to
continue in jobs where they could harm the
organization.

important:
– Hiring
– Compensating
– Training
– Discharging
• Vacations and rotation of duties

– Some fraud schemes, such as lapping and
kiting, cannot continue without the constant
attention of the perpetrator.
– Mandatory vacations or rotation of duties can
prevent these frauds or lead to early
detection.
– These measures will only be effective if
someone else is doing the job while the
usual employee is elsewhere.

important:
– Hiring
– Compensating
– Training
– Discharging
• Confidentiality agreements and fidelity

bond insurance
– Employees, suppliers, and contractors should
be required to sign and abide by
nondisclosure or confidentiality agreements.
– Key employees should have fidelity bond
insurance coverage to protect the company
against losses from fraudulent acts by those
employees.
• In addition to the preceding policies, the

company should seek prosecution and
incarceration of hackers and fraud perpetrators
• Most fraud cases and hacker attacks go
unreported. They are not prosecuted for several
reasons.
– Companies fear:
• Public relations nightmares
• Copycat attacks
– But unreported fraud and intrusions create a false
sense of security.
– Law enforcement officials and courts are busy with

violent crimes and may regard teen hacking as
“childish pranks.”
– Fraud is difficult, costly, and time-consuming to
investigate and prosecute.
– Law enforcement officials, lawyers, and judges often
lack the computer skills needed to investigate,
prosecute, and evaluate computer crimes.
– When cases are prosecuted and a conviction
obtained, penalties are often very light. Judges often
regard the perps as “model citizens.”

appetite
competence
• External influences
– External influences that affect the control
environment include requirements imposed
by:
• FASB
• PCAOB
• SEC
• Insurance commissions
• Regulatory agencies for banks, utilities, etc.
OBJECTIVE SETTING
• Objective setting is the
second ERM
component.
• It must precede many
of the other six
components.
• For example, you must
set objectives before
you can define events
that affect your ability
to achieve objectives
OBJECTIVE SETTING
• Top management, with board approval, must

articulate why the company exists and what it
hopes to achieve.
– Often referred to as the corporate vision or mission.
• Uses the mission statement as a base from
which to set corporate objectives.
• The objectives:
– Need to be easy to understand and measure.
– Should be prioritized.
– Should be aligned with the company’s risk appetite.
OBJECTIVE SETTING
• Objectives set at the corporate level are

linked to and integrated with a cascading
series of sub-objectives in the various sub-
units.
• For each set of objectives:
– Critical success factors (what has to go right)
must be defined.
– Performance measures should be established
to determine whether the objectives are met.
OBJECTIVE SETTING
• Objective-setting process proceeds as follows:

– First, set strategic objectives, the high-level goals that
support the company’s mission and create value for
shareholders.
– To meet these objectives, identify alternative ways of
accomplishing them.
– For each alternative, identify and assess risks and
implications.
– Formulate a corporate strategy.
– Then set operations, compliance, and reporting
objectives.
OBJECTIVE SETTING
• As a rule of thumb:
– The mission and strategic objectives are
stable.
– The strategy and other objectives are more
dynamic:
• Must be adapted to changing conditions.
• Must be realigned with strategic objectives.
OBJECTIVE SETTING
• Operations objectives:
– Are a product of management preferences,
judgments, and style
– Vary significantly among entities:
• One may adopt technology; another waits until the
bugs are worked out.
– Are influenced by and must be relevant to the
industry, economic conditions, and
competitive pressures.
– Give clear direction for resource allocation—a
key success factor.
OBJECTIVE SETTING
• Compliance and reporting objectives:

– Many are imposed by external entities, e.g.:
• Reports to IRS or to EPA
• Financial reports that comply with GAAP
– A company’s reputation can be impacted
significantly (for better or worse) by the quality
of its compliance.
EVENT IDENTIFICATION
• Events are:
– Incidents or occurrences that
emanate from internal or
external sources
– That affect implementation of
strategy or achievement of
objectives.
– Impact can be positive,
negative, or both.
– Events can range from
obvious to obscure.
– Effects can range from
inconsequential to highly
significant.
• By their nature, events represent

uncertainty:
– Will they occur?
– If so, when?
– And what will the impact be?
– Will they trigger another event?
– Will they happen individually or concurrently?
• Management must do its best to anticipate all

possible events—positive or negative—that
might affect the company:
– Try to determine which are most and least likely.
– Understand the interrelationships of events.
• COSO identified many internal and external
factors that could influence events and affect a
company’s ability to implement strategy and
achieve objectives.
• Availability of capital; lower or higher costs of
capital
• Lower barriers to entry, resulting in new
• Some of thesecompetition
factors include:
• Price movements up or down
– External factors:
• Ability to issue credit and possibility of default
• Economic• factors
Concentration of competitors, customers, or
vendors
• Presence or absence of liquidity
• Movements in the financial markets or
currency fluctuations
• Rising or lowering unemployment rates
• Mergers or acquisitions
• Potential regulatory, contractual, or criminal
legal liability
• Some of these factors include:

• Economic factors
• Natural environment
• Natural disasters such as fires,
floods, or earthquakes
• Emissions and waste
• Energy restrictions or
shortages
• Restrictions limiting
development

• Economic factors
• Political factors • Election of government officials
with new agendas
• New laws and regulations
• Public policy, including higher
or lower taxes
• Regulation affecting the
company’s ability to compete
• Changing demographics, social
mores, family structures, and
work/life priorities
• Consumer behavior that
– External factors: changes demand for products
• Economic factors and services or creates new
buying opportunities
• Corporate citizenship
• Political factors • Privacy
• Social factors • Terrorism
• Human resource issues
causing production shortages
or stoppages
• New e-business technologies
• Some of these factors thatinclude:
lower infrastructure costs
or increase demand for IT-
– External factors: based services
• Economic factors • Emerging technology
• Increased or decreased
availability of data
• Political factors • Interruptions or down time
• Social factors caused by external parties
• Technological factors

– Internal factors:
• Infrastructure
• Inadequate access or poor allocation of capital
• Availability and capability of company assets
• Complexity of systems

• Infrastructure
• Personnel
• Employee skills and capability
• Employees acting dishonestly or unethically
• Workplace accidents, health or safety
concerns
• Strikes or expiration of labor agreements

• Infrastructure
• Personnel
• Process
• Process modification without proper change
management procedures
• Poorly designed processes
• Process execution errors
• Suppliers cannot deliver quality goods on time

• Infrastructure
• Personnel
• Process
• Technology
• Insufficient capacity to handle peak IT usages
• Security breaches
• Data or system unavailability from internal factors
• Inadequate data integrity
• Poor systems selection/development
• Inadequately maintained systems
• Lists can help management identify factors,

evaluate their importance, and examine those
that can affect objectives.
• Identifying events at the activity and entity levels
allows companies to focus their risk assessment
on major business units or functions and align
their risk tolerance and risk appetite.
• Companies usually use two or more of the

following techniques together to identify
events:
– Use comprehensive lists of potential
events
• Often produced by special software that can
tailor lists to an industry, activity, or process.

events:
– Use comprehensive lists of potential events
– Perform an internal analysis
• An internal committee analyzes events, contacting
appropriate insiders and outsiders for input.

events:
– Monitor leading events and trigger points
• Appropriate transactions, activities, and events
are monitored and compared to predefined
criteria to determine when action is needed.

events:
– Conduct workshops and interviews
• Employee knowledge and expertise is gathered
in structured discussions or individual
interviews.

events:
• Examine data on prior events to identify trends
– Conductand
workshops andidentify
causes that help interviews
possible events.
– Perform data mining and analysis

events:
– Conduct
• Analyze
workshops and
internal and interviews
external factors that affect
inputs, processes, and outputs to identify events
– Perform
thatdata
mightmining and analysis
help or hinder the process.
– Analyze processes
RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK
RESPONSE
• The fourth and fifth
components of
COSO’s ERM model
are risk assessment
and risk response.
• COSO indicates
• The risk that exists before
there aretakes
management twoanytypes
steps to
of risk:
control the likelihood or impact
of a risk.
– Inherent risk
RESPONSE
• The fourth and fifth
components of
COSO’s ERM model
are risk assessment
and risk response.
• COSO indicates
there are two types
• The risk that remains after
ofmanagement
risk: implements internal
–controls
Inherent riskother form of
or some
–response
Residualto risk.
risk
RESPONSE
• Companies should:
– Assess inherent risk
– Develop a response
– Then assess residual risk
• The ERM model indicates four ways to respond
to risk: • The most effective way to reduce
– Reduce it the likelihood and impact of risk is
to implement an effective system of
internal controls.
RESPONSE
to risk:
– Reduce it
– Accept it • Don’t act to prevent or mitigate
it.
RESPONSE
to risk:
– Reduce it
– Accept it • Transfer some of it to others via
– Share it activities such as insurance,
outsourcing, or hedging.
RESPONSE
to risk:
• Don’t engage in the activity that
– Reduce it produces it.
– Accept it • May require:
– Share it – Sale of a division
– Avoid it – Exiting a product line
– Canceling an expansion plan
RESPONSE
• Accountants:
– Help management design effective controls to
reduce inherent risk
– Evaluate internal control systems to ensure
they are operating effectively
– Assess and reduce inherent risk using the risk
assessment and response strategy
Identify the events or threats
RISK ASSESSMENT that confront the company
AND RISK RESPONSE
Estimate the likelihood or
probability of each event occurring
• Event Estimate the impact of potential

Identification loss from each threat
– The first step in risk Identify set of controls to

assessment and guard against threat
response strategy Estimate costs and benefits

is event from instituting controls
identification, which
we have already Is it
cost-
Avoid,
No share, or
discussed. beneficial
to protect accept
system risk
Yes
Reduce risk by implementing set of
controls to guard against threat
AND RISK RESPONSE
• Estimate Likelihood
and Impact Estimate the impact of potential
– Some events pose loss from each threat
more risk because they
are more probable than Identify set of controls to
others. guard against threat
– Some events pose
more risk because their Estimate costs and benefits
dollar impact would be from instituting controls
more significant.
– Likelihood and impact Is it
must be considered Avoid,
cost- No share, or
together: beneficial
accept
to protect
– If either increases, the system risk
materiality of the event
and the need to protect Yes
against it rises. Reduce risk by implementing set of
AND RISK RESPONSE
• Identify Controls
Estimate the impact of potential
– Management must loss from each threat
identify one or more
controls that will Identify set of controls to
guard against threat
protect the
company from each Estimate costs and benefits
event. from instituting controls
– In evaluating
Is it
benefits of each cost- No
Avoid,
share, or
control procedure, beneficial
to protect accept
consider system risk
effectiveness and Yes

timing. Reduce risk by implementing set of
AND RISK RESPONSE
• All other factors equal:
– A preventive control is Estimate the impact of potential
better than a detective loss from each threat
one.
– However, if preventive Identify set of controls to
controls fail, detective guard against threat
controls are needed to
discover the problem, Estimate costs and benefits
and corrective controls from instituting controls
are needed to recover.
– Consequently, the three
complement each other, Is it
Avoid,
cost- No
and a good internal beneficial share, or
control system should to protect accept
have all three. system risk
– Similarly, a company Yes

should use all four Reduce risk by implementing set of
levers of control. controls to guard against threat
AND RISK RESPONSE
• Estimate Costs and
Benefits Estimate the impact of potential
loss from each threat
– It would be cost-
prohibitive to create an Identify set of controls to
internal control system guard against threat
that provided foolproof
protection against all Estimate costs and benefits
events. from instituting controls
– Also, some controls
negatively affect Is it
Avoid,
operational efficiency, cost- No share, or
beneficial
and too many controls to protect accept
can make it very system risk
inefficient. Yes
AND RISK RESPONSE
• The benefits of an internal
control procedure must Estimate the impact of potential
exceed its costs. loss from each threat
• Benefits can be hard to
quantify, but include: Identify set of controls to
– Increased sales and guard against threat
productivity
– Reduced losses Estimate costs and benefits
– Better integration with from instituting controls
customers and
suppliers Is it
Avoid,
– Increased customer cost- No share, or
beneficial
loyalty to protect accept
– Competitive system risk
advantages
Yes
– Lower insurance Reduce risk by implementing set of
premiums controls to guard against threat
AND RISK RESPONSE
• Costs are usually
easier to measure Estimate the impact of potential
than benefits.
• Primary cost is Identify set of controls to
personnel, including:
– Time to perform control Estimate costs and benefits
procedures from instituting controls
– Costs of hiring
additional employees to Is it
Avoid,
effectively segregate cost- No share, or
beneficial
duties to protect accept
– Costs of programming system risk
controls into a system Yes
AND RISK RESPONSE
• Other costs of a poor
control system include: Estimate the impact of potential
– Lost sales loss from each threat
– Lower productivity
Identify set of controls to
– Drop in stock price if guard against threat
security problems arise
– Shareholder or Estimate costs and benefits
regulator lawsuits from instituting controls
– Fines and penalties
imposed by
governmental agencies Is it
cost-
Avoid,
No share, or
beneficial
to protect accept
system risk
Yes
AND RISK RESPONSE
• The expected loss
related to a risk is loss from each threat
measured as:
– Expected loss = Identify set of controls to
impact x likelihood guard against threat
• The value of a Estimate costs and benefits

control procedure from instituting controls
is the difference
between: Is it
cost- No
Avoid,
share, or
– Expected loss with beneficial
to protect accept
control procedure system risk
– Expected loss Yes

without it Reduce risk by implementing set of
AND RISK RESPONSE
• Determine Cost-
Benefit Effectiveness Estimate the impact of potential
– After estimating
benefits and costs, Identify set of controls to
management guard against threat
determines if the control
is cost beneficial, i.e., is Estimate costs and benefits
the cost of from instituting controls
implementing a control
procedure less than the Is it
change in expected cost- Avoid,
beneficia No share, or
loss that would be l accept
attributable to the to protect risk
system
change?
Yes
AND RISK RESPONSE
• In evaluating costs and
benefits, management Estimate the impact of potential
must consider factors other loss from each threat
than those in the expected
benefit calculation.
Identify set of controls to
– If an event threatens an guard against threat
organization’s
existence, it may be Estimate costs and benefits
worthwhile to institute from instituting controls
controls even if costs
exceed expected
benefits. Is it
cost- Avoid,
– The additional cost can beneficia No share, or
be viewed as a l accept
catastrophic loss to protect risk
system
insurance premium.
Yes
• Expected Loss without control procedure = $800,000 x .12 = $96,000.
• Expected RISK
loss withASSESSMENT ANDx RISK
control procedure = $800,000 .005 = $4,000.
• Estimated value of control procedure = $96,000 - $4,000 = $92,000.
•
RESPONSE
Estimated cost of control procedure = $43,000 (given).
• Benefits exceed costs by $92,000 - $43,000 = $49,000.
• Let’s go through an example:
• In this case, Hobby Hole should probably install the motion detectors.
– Hobby Hole is trying to decide whether to install a
motion detector system in its warehouse to reduce the
probability of a catastrophic theft.
– A catastrophic theft could result in losses of $800,000.
– Local crime statistics suggest that the probability of a
catastrophic theft at Hobby Hole is 12%.
– Companies with motion detectors only have about a
.5% probability of catastrophic theft.
– The present value of purchasing and installing a
motion detector system and paying future security
costs is estimated to be about $43,000.
– Should Hobby Hole install the motion detectors?
AND RISK RESPONSE
• Implement the
Control or Avoid, loss from each threat
Share, or Accept the
Risk Identify set of controls to
– When controls are cost
effective, they should Estimate costs and benefits
be implemented so risk from instituting controls
can be reduced.
Is it
cost- Avoid,
beneficia No share, or
l accept
to protect risk
system
Yes
AND RISK RESPONSE
• Risks that are not reduced
must be accepted, shared, Estimate the impact of potential
or avoided. loss from each threat
– If the risk is within the
company’s risk Identify set of controls to
tolerance, they will guard against threat
typically accept the risk.
– A reduce or share Estimate costs and benefits
response is used to from instituting controls
bring residual risk into
an acceptable risk Is it
tolerance range. cost- Avoid,
– An avoid response is beneficia No share, or
typically only used l accept
to protect risk
when there is no way to system
cost-effectively bring Yes
risk into an acceptable Reduce risk by implementing set of
risk tolerance range. controls to guard against threat
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• The sixth component of
COSO’s ERM model.
• Control activities are
policies, procedures,
and rules that provide
reasonable assurance
that management’s
control objectives are
met and their risk
responses are carried
out.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• It is management’s responsibility to develop a

secure and adequately controlled system.
– Controls are much more effective when built in on the
front end.
– Consequently, systems analysts, designers, and end
users should be involved in designing adequate
computer-based control systems.
• Management must also establish a set of
procedures to ensure control compliance and
enforcement.
– Usually the purview of the information security officer
and the operations staff.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• It is critical that controls be in place during

the year-end holiday season. A
disproportionate amount of computer fraud
and security break-ins occur during this
time because:
– More people are on vacation and fewer
around to mind the store.
– Students are not tied up with school.
– Counterculture hackers may be lonely.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Generally, control procedures fall into one

of the following categories:
– Proper authorization of transactions and
activities
– Segregation of duties
– Project development and acquisition controls
– Change management controls
– Design and use of documents and records
– Safeguard assets, records, and data
– Independent checks on performance
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

activities
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Proper Authorization of Transactions

and Activities
– Management lacks the time and resources to
supervise each employee activity and
decision.
– Consequently, they establish policies and
empower employees to perform activities
within policy.
– This empowerment is called authorization
and is an important part of an organization’s
control procedures.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Authorizations are often documented by signing

initializing, or entering an authorization code.
• Computer systems can record digital
signatures as a means of signing a document.
• Employees who process transactions should
verify the presence of the appropriate
authorizations.
• Auditors review transactions for proper
authorization, as their absence indicates a
possible control problem.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Typically at least two levels of authorization:

– General authorization
• Management authorizes employees to handle routine
transactions without special approval.
– Special authorization
• For activities or transactions that are of significant
consequences, management review and approval is
required.
• Might apply to sales, capital expenditures, or write-offs over a
particular dollar limit.
• Management should have written policies for
both types of authorization and for all types of
transactions.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

activities
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Segregation of Duties
– Good internal control requires that no single
employee be given too much responsibility
over business transactions or processes.
– An employee should not be in a position to
commit and conceal fraud or unintentional
errors.
– Segregation of duties is discussed in two
sections:
• Segregation of accounting duties
• Segregation of duties within the systems function
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
employee be given too much responsibility
over business transactions or processes.
– An employee should not be in a position to
commit and conceal fraud or unintentional
errors.
– Segregation of duties is discussed in two
sections:
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• To learn a little about segregation of

duties, let’s first meet Bill.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Bill has charge of a pile of the

organization’s money—let’s say $1,000.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger
$1,000
• Bill also keeps the books for that

money.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger
$1,000
• Bill has a date tonight, and he’s a little desperate to

impress that special someone, so he takes $100 of
the cash. (Thinks he’s only borrowing it, you know.)
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger
$1,000
• Bill has a date tonight, and he’s a little desperate to

impress that special someone, so he takes $100 of
the cash. (Thinks he’s only borrowing it, you know.)
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger
$1,000
• Bill also records an entry in the books to show that

$100 was spent for some “legitimate” purpose. Now
the balance in the books is $900.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger
$900
• How will Bill ever get caught at his

theft?
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Now let’s change the story. Bill has

charge of the pile of cash.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger
$1,000
• But Mary keeps the books.

• This arrangement is a form of segregation of duties.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger
$1,000
• Bill gets in a pinch again and takes

$100 of the organization’s cash.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger
$1,000
• How will Bill get caught?
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Segregation of Accounting Duties

– Effective segregation of accounting duties is achieved
when the following functions are separated:
• Authorization—approving transactions and decisions.
• Recording—Preparing source documents; maintaining
journals, ledgers, or other files; preparing reconciliations; and
preparing performance reports.
• Custody—Handling cash, maintaining an inventory
storeroom, receiving incoming customer checks, writing
checks on the organization’s bank account.
– If any two of the preceding functions are the
responsibility of one person, then problems can arise.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
CUSTODIAL FUNCTIONS RECORDING FUNCTIONS
• Handling cash • Preparing source
• Handling inventories, tools, documents
or fixed assets • Maintaining journals,
• Writing checks ledgers, or other files
• Receiving checks in mail • Preparing reconciliations
• Preparing performance
reports
• EXAMPLE OF PROBLEM: A person who has custody of cash receipts and the
AUTHORIZATION
recording for those receipts can steal some of the cash and falsify accounts to
conceal the theft. FUNCTIONS
• SOLUTION: The pink fence• (segregation
Authorization of
of custody and recording) prevents
transactions
employees from falsifying records to conceal theft of assets entrusted to them.
• EXAMPLE OF PROBLEM: A
person who has custody of
checks for transactions that
CONTROL ACTIVITIES he has authorized can
authorize fictitious
transactions and then steal
CUSTODIAL FUNCTIONS RECORDING
the payments.FUNCTIONS
• Handling cash •• Preparing source
SOLUTION: The green
• Handling inventories, tools, documents
fence (segregation of
or fixed assets • Maintaining
custody and journals,
authorization)
• Writing checks ledgers, or
prevents other files
employees from
• Receiving checks in mail • authorizing fictitious or
Preparing reconciliations
• inaccurate transactions as a
Preparing performance
means
reportsof concealing a theft.
AUTHORIZATION
FUNCTIONS
• Authorization of
transactions
• EXAMPLE OF PROBLEM: A
person who can authorize a
transaction and keep
records related to the CONTROL ACTIVITIES
transactions can authorize
and record fictitious
CUSTODIAL
payments FUNCTIONS
that might, for RECORDING FUNCTIONS
• Handling
example, be sent
cashto the • Preparing source
employee’s
• Handlinghome addresstools,
inventories, documents
or the address
or fixed of a shell
assets • Maintaining journals,
company he creates. ledgers, or other files
• Writing checks
• SOLUTION: The purple • Preparing reconciliations
• Receiving checks in mail
fence (segregation of • Preparing performance
recording and authorization) reports
prevents employees from
falsifying records to cover
up inaccurate or false
transactions that were
inappropriately authorized.
AUTHORIZATION
FUNCTIONS
• Authorization of
transactions
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• In a system that incorporates an effective

separation of duties, it should be difficult
for any single employee to commit
embezzlement successfully.
• But when two or more people collude,
then segregation of duties becomes
impotent and controls are overridden.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger
$1,000
• If this happens . . .
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger
$1,000
• Then segregation of duties is out the window.

Collusion overrides segregation.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Employees can collude with other employees or

with customers or vendors.
• The most frequent form of employee/vendor
collusions include:
– Billing at inflated prices
– Performing substandard work and receiving full
payment
– Payment for non-performance
– Duplicate billings
– Improperly funneling more work to or purchasing
more goods from a colluding company
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• The most frequent form of

employee/customer collusions include:
– Unauthorized loans or insurance payments
– Receipt of assets or services at unauthorized
discount prices
– Forgiveness of amounts owed
– Unauthorized extension of due dates
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
employee be given too much responsibility over
business transactions or processes.
– An employee should not be in a position to commit
and conceal fraud or unintentional errors.
– Segregation of duties is discussed in two sections:
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Segregation of Duties Within the

Systems Function
– In a highly integrated information system,
procedures once performed by separate
individuals are combined.
– Therefore, anyone who has unrestricted
access to the computer, its programs, and live
data could have the opportunity to perpetrate
and conceal fraud.
– To combat this threat, organizations must
implement effective segregation of duties
within the IS function.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Authority and responsibility must be divided clearly

among the following functions:
– Systems administration
• Responsible for ensuring that
the different parts of an
information system operate
smoothly and efficiently.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

– Network management
• Ensures that all applicable devices are
linked to the organization’s internal
and external networks and that the
networks operate continuously and
properly.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

– Network management • Ensures that all aspects of the
– Security management system are secure and protected
from internal and external
threats.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

– Security management • Manages changes to the
– Change management organization’s information
system to ensure they are made
smoothly and efficiently and to
prevent errors and fraud.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

– Security management
– Change management
– Users • Record transactions, authorize
data to be processed, and use
system output.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

– Users • Help users determine their
– Systems analysts information needs and design
systems to meet those needs.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

– Users
– Systems analysts
– Programming • Use design provided by the
systems analysts to write the
computer programs for the
information system.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

– Users
• Run the software on the
– Programming
company’s computers.
– Computer operations
• Ensure that data are input
properly, correctly processed,
and needed output is produced.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

– Users
– Systems analysts • Maintains custody of corporate
– Programming databases, files, and programs in
– Computer operations a separate storage area.
– Information systems library
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

– • Ensures that source data have
Security management
– Change management been properly approved.
– Users • Monitors the flow of work
through the computer.
• Reconciles input and output.
– Programming
• Maintains a record of input
– Computer operations
errors to ensure their correction
– Information systemsand
library
resubmission.
– Data control • Distributes system output.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• It is important that different people perform the

preceding functions.
– Allowing a person to do two or more jobs exposes the
company to the possibility of fraud.
• In addition to adequate segregation of duties,
organizations should ensure that the people who
design, develop, implement, and operate the IS
are qualified and well trained.
• The same holds true for systems security
personnel.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Generally, control procedures fall into one of the

following categories:
– Proper authorization of transactions and activities
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Project Development and Acquisition Controls
– It’s important to have a formal, appropriate, and proven
methodology to govern the development, acquisition,
implementation, and maintenance of information systems and
related technologies.
• Should contain appropriate controls for:
– Management review and approval
– User involvement
– Analysis
– Design
– Testing
– Implementation
– Conversion
• Should make it possible for management to trace information
inputs from source to disposition and vice versa (the audit
trail).
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Examples abound of poorly managed

projects that have wasted large sums of
money because certain basic principles of
project management control were ignored.
• A multi-year strategic plan
should align the organization’s
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
information system with its
business strategies and show
the projects that must be
• The following basic principles completed
of control to
should
achievebelong-
applied to systems development in goals.
range order to reduce the
potential for cost overruns and project
• Should failurehardware,
address and to
improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the IS:
software, personnel, and
– Strategic master plan infrastructure requirements.
• Each year, the board and top
management should prepare
and approve the plan and its
supporting budget.
• Should be evaluated several
times a year to ensure the
organization can acquire
needed components and
maintain existing ones.
• A project development plan shows
how a project will be completed,
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
including:
• Modules or tasks to be
• The following basic principles of performed
control should be
applied to systems development • Who will perform
in order them
to reduce the
potential for cost overruns and•project
Anticipated
failurecompletion
and to dates
• Project costs
• Project milestones should be
– Strategic master plan
specified—points when progress
– Project controls is reviewed and actual completion
times are compared to estimates
• Each project should be assigned
to a manager and team who are
responsible for its success or
failure.
• At project completion, a project
evaluation of the team members
should be performed.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• The following basic principles of control should be

applied to systems development in order to reduce the
potential for cost overruns and project failure and to
– Project controls
– Data processing schedule
• Data processing tasks should
be organized according to a
schedule to maximize the use of
scarce computer resources.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

– Data processing schedule
– Steering committee • A steering committee should
guide and oversee systems
development and acquisition.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• To
• The following basic principles of be evaluated
control properly,
should be a
system should be assessed
with measures such as:
– Throughput (output per
unit of time)
– Strategic master plan – Utilization (percent of time
– Project controls it is used productively)
– Data processing schedule – Response time (how long it
– Steering committee takes to respond)
– System performance measurements
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

• A review should be performed
after a development project is
– Data processing schedule completed to determine if the
– Steering committee anticipated benefits were
– System performance measurementsachieved.
– Post-implementation review • Helps control project
development activities and
encourage accurate and
objective initial cost and
benefit estimates.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• To simplify and improve systems development,

some companies hire a systems integrator—a
vendor who uses common standards and
manages the development effort using their own
personnel and those of the client and other
vendors.
– Many companies rely on the integrator’s assurance
that the project will be completed on time.
– Unfortunately, the integrator is often wrong.
– These third-party systems development projects are
subject to the same cost overruns and missed
deadlines as systems developed internally.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Before third parties bid, provide clear
• When using systems
specifications, integrators,
including:
companies should
– Exact adhere
descriptions andto the same
definitions of the system
– Explicit deadlines
basic rules used for project management
– Precise acceptance criteria
of internal projects.
• While In toaddition,
it’s expensive they
develop these
should: specifications, it will save money in the end.
– Develop clear specifications
• A sponsors committee should monitor third-party
development projects.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
– Established by the CIO and chaired by the
project’s internal champion.
– Should include department managers from all
• When using systems integrators,
units that will use the system.
– Should establish formal procedures for
companies should adhere
measuring to the
and reporting same
project status.
basic rules used
– Best for project
approach is to: management
• Divide project into manageable tasks.
of internal projects. In addition, they
• Assign responsibility for each task.
should: • Meet on a regular basis (at least monthly)
– Develop clear specifications
to review progress and assess quality.
– Monitor the systems integration project
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

activities
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Change Management Controls

– Organizations constantly modify their information
systems to reflect new business practices and take
advantage of information technology advances.
– Change management is the process of making sure
that the changes do not negatively affect:
• Systems reliability
• Security
• Confidentiality
• Integrity
• Availability
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

activities
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Design and Use of Adequate Documents and
Records
– Proper design and use of documents and records
helps ensure accurate and complete recording of all
relevant transaction data.
– Form and content should be kept as simple as
possible to:
• Promote efficient record keeping
• Minimize recording errors
• Facilitate review and verification
– Documents that initiate a transaction should contain a
space for authorization.
– Those used to transfer assets should have a space
for the receiving party’s signature.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Documents should be sequentially pre-

numbered:
– To reduce likelihood that they would be used
fraudulently.
– To help ensure that all valid transactions are
recorded.
• A good audit trail facilitates:
– Tracing individual transactions through the system.
– Correcting errors.
– Verifying system output.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

activities
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Safeguard Assets, Records, and Data

– When people consider safeguarding assets, they
most often think of cash and physical assets, such as
inventory and equipment.
– Another company asset that needs to be protected is
information.
– According to the ACFE’s 2004 National Fraud Survey,
theft of information made up only 17.3% of non-cash
misappropriations; however, the median cost of an
information theft was $340,000. This cost was 126%
higher than the next most costly non-asset theft.
(Equipment theft had a median cost of $150,000.)
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Many people mistakenly believe that the

greatest risks companies face are from
outsiders.
• However, employees pose a much greater
risk when it comes to loss of data
because:
– They know the system and its weaknesses
better.
– They are better able to hide their illegal acts.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Insiders also create less-intentional threats to
systems, including:
– Accidentally deleting company data
– Turning viruses loose
– Trying to fix hardware or software without appropriate
expertise (i.e., when in doubt, unplug it).
• These actions can result in crashed networks,
corrupt data, and hardware and software
malfunctions.
• Companies also face significant risks from
customers and vendors that have access to
company data.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Many steps can be taken to safeguard

both information and physical assets from
theft, unauthorized use, and vandalism.
Chapters 7 and 8 discuss computer-based
controls. In addition, it is important to:
– Maintain accurate records of all assets
• Periodically reconcile recorded amounts to
physical counts.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

• Use restricted storage areas
for inventories and equipment.
controls. In addition, •it Use
is important to:
cash registers, safes,
– Maintain accurate records
lockboxes, and safe deposit
of all assets
boxes to limit access to cash,
• Periodically reconcile recorded amounts
securities, to assets.
and paper
physical counts.
• Restrict access to assets
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

• Use fireproof storage areas,
controls. In addition, it is important
locked to: backup
filing cabinets,
of files (including copies at
– Maintain accurate records of all assets
off-site locations).
• Periodically reconcile recorded amounts
• Limit access to checks
to blank
physical counts. and documents to authorized
• Restrict access to assets personnel.
• Protect records and documents
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

activities
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger
$1,000
• Let’s look at Bill and Mary again. Assume that Bill

stole cash but Mary did NOT alter the books.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger
$1,000
• Can Bill’s theft be discovered if an independent party

doesn’t compare a count of the cash to what’s
recorded on the books?
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger
$1,000
• Segregation of duties only has value when

supplemented by independent checks.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Internal checks to ensure that transactions

are processed accurately are an important
control element.
• These checks should be performed by
someone independent of the party(ies)
responsible for the activities.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• The following independent checks are

typically used:
– Top-level reviews
• Management at all levels should monitor company
results and periodically compare actual performance
to:
– Planned performance as shown in budgets, targets,
and forecasts
– Prior-period performance
– The performance of competitors
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

typically used:
– Analytical reviews
• Examinations of relationships between different sets of
data.
• EXAMPLE: If credit sales increased significantly during
the period and there were no changes in credit policy,
then bad debt expense should probably have increased
also.
• Management should periodically analyze and review
data relationships to detect fraud and other business
problems.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
• Check the accuracy and completeness of records by
• reconciling them with other records that should have the
The following independent checks are
same balance.
typically used:
• EXAMPLES:
– Bank reconciliations
– Comparing accounts payable control account to sum
– Analytical reviewsaccounts.
of subsidiary
– Reconciliation of independently
maintained sets of records
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

typically used:• Periodically count significant assets
and reconcile the count to company
records.
– • EXAMPLE: Annual physical inventory.
Analytical reviews
• High-dollar items and critical
– Reconciliation ofcomponents
independently maintained
should be counted more
sets of records frequently.
– Comparison of actual quantities with
recorded amounts
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

typically used:
– Reconciliation of independently maintained
sets of records
– Comparison of actual• quantities
Ensure that with
debitsrecorded
equal
amounts credits.
– Double-entry accounting
CONTROL ACTIVITIES

typically used:
– Reconciliation of independently maintained
sets of records
– Comparison of actual quantities with recorded
amounts • After one person processes a
transaction, another reviews
– Double-entry accountingtheir work.
– Independent review
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
• The seventh component of

COSO’s ERM model.
• The primary purpose of the AIS is
to gather, record, process, store,
summarize, and communicate
information about an organization.
• So accountants must understand
how:
– Transactions are initiated
– Data are captured in or
converted to machine-readable
form
– Computer files are accessed
and updated
– Data are processed
– Information is reported to
internal and external parties
• Accountants must also understand the

accounting records and procedures,
supporting documents, and specific
financial statement accounts involved in
processing and reporting transactions.
• The preceding items facilitate an audit trail
which allows for transactions to be traced
from origin to financial statements and vice
versa.
• According to the AICPA, an AIS has five

primary objectives:
– Identify and record all valid transactions.
– Properly classify transactions.
– Record transactions at their proper monetary
value.
– Record transactions in the proper accounting
period.
– Properly present transactions and related
disclosures in the financial statements.
• Accounting systems generally consist of several

accounting subsystems, each designed to
process transactions of a particular type.
• Though they differ with respect to the type of
transactions processed, all accounting
subsystems follow the same sequence of
procedures, referred to as accounting cycles.
• The five major accounting cycles and their
related control objectives and procedures are
detailed in Chapters 10-14.
MONITORING
• The eighth
component of
COSO’s ERM
model.
• Monitoring can be
accomplished with a
series of ongoing
events or by
separate
evaluations.
MONITORING
• Key methods of monitoring performance include:
– Perform ERM evaluation
– Implement effective supervision
– Use responsibility accounting
– Monitor system activities
– Track purchased software
– Conduct periodic audits
– Employ a computer security officer and security
consultants
– Engage forensic specialists
– Install fraud detection software
– Implement a fraud hotline
MONITORING
consultants
MONITORING
• Perform ERM Evaluation

– Can measure ERM effectiveness through a
formal evaluation or through a self-
assessment process.
– A special group can be assembled to conduct
the evaluation or it can be done by internal
auditing.
MONITORING
consultants
MONITORING
• Implement Effective Supervision

– Involves:
• Training and assisting employees;
• Monitoring their performance;
• Correcting errors; and
• Safeguarding assets by overseeing employees
with access.
– Especially important in organizations that:
• Can’t afford elaborate responsibility reporting; or
• Are too small for segregation of duties.
MONITORING
consultants
MONITORING
• Use Responsibility Accounting

– Includes use of:
• Budgets, quotas, schedules, standard costs, and
quality standards;
• Performance reports that compare actual with
planned performance and highlight variances;
• Procedures for investigating significant variances
and taking timely actions to correct adverse
conditions.
MONITORING
consultants
MONITORING
• Monitor System Activities

– Risk analysis and management software
packages are available to:
• Review computer and network security measures;
• Detect illegal entry into systems;
• Test for weaknesses and vulnerabilities;
• Report weaknesses found; and
• Suggest improvements.
MONITORING
• Cost parameters can be entered to

balance acceptable levels of risk tolerance
and cost-effectiveness.
• Software is also available to monitor and
combat viruses, spyware, spam, pop-up
ads, and to prevent browsers from being
hijacked.
• Also helps companies recover from frauds
and malicious actions and restore systems
to pre-incident status.
MONITORING
• System transactions and activities should be

recorded in a log which indicates who accessed
what data, when, and from which terminal.
• Logs should be reviewed frequently to monitor
system activity and trace any problems to their
source.
• Data collected can be used to:
– Evaluate employee productivity;
– Control company costs;
– Fight corporate espionage and other attacks; and
– Comply with legal requirements.
MONITORING
• Companies that monitor system activities need to ensure
they do not violate employee privacy rights.
• Employers cannot discreetly observe communications of
employees when those employees have a “reasonable
expectation of privacy.”
• Employers must therefore ensure that employees realize
their business communications are not “private.” One way
to accomplish that objective is to have written policies that
employees agree to in writing which indicate:
– The technology employees use on the job belongs to the
company.
– Emails received on company computers are not private and can
be read by supervisory personnel.
– Employees should not use technology in any way to contribute to
a hostile work environment.
MONITORING
consultants
MONITORING
• Track Purchased Software

– The Business Software Alliance (BSA) aggressively
tracks down and fines companies who violate
software license agreements.
– To comply with copyrights, companies should
periodically conduct software audits to ensure that.
• There are enough licenses for all users;
• The company is not paying for more licenses than needed.
– Employees should be informed of the consequences
of using unlicensed software.
MONITORING
consultants
MONITORING
• Conduct Periodic Audits

– To monitor risk and detect fraud and errors,
the company should have periodic:
• External audits
• Internal audits
• Special network security audits
– Auditors should test system controls and
browse system usage files looking for
suspicious activities (discussed in Chapter 9).
MONITORING
• Again, care should be exercised that

employees’ privacy rights are not violated.
• Therefore, inform employees that auditors
will conduct random surveillance, which:
– Avoids privacy violations
– Creates a “perception of detection” that can
deter crime and reduce errors
MONITORING
• Internal auditing involves:

– Reviewing the reliability and integrity of
financial and operating information.
– Providing an appraisal of internal control
effectiveness.
– Assessing employee compliance with
management policies and procedures and
applicable laws and regulations.
– Evaluating the efficiency and effectiveness of
management.
MONITORING
• Internal audits can detect:

– Excess overtime
– Under-used assets
– Obsolete inventory
– Padded expense reimbursements
– Excessively loose budgets and quotas
– Poorly justified capital expenditures
– Production bottlenecks
MONITORING
• Internal auditing should be organizationally

independent of the accounting and
operating functions.
• The head should report to the audit
committee of the board of directors rather
than to the controller or CFO.
MONITORING
consultants
MONITORING
• Employ a Computer Security Officer

and Computer Consultants
– The computer security officer (CSO) is in
charge of AIS security
• Should be independent of the IS function
• Should report to the COO or CEO
– Many companies also use outside computer
consultants or in-house teams to test and
evaluate their security procedures and
computer systems.
MONITORING
consultants
MONITORING
• Engage Forensic Specialists

– Forensic accountants specialize in fraud
detection and investigation.
• Now one of the fastest growing areas of
accounting due to:
– SOX
– SAS-99
– Boards of Directors demanding that forensic accounting
be an ongoing part of the financial reporting and
corporate governance process.
MONITORING
• Most forensic accountants are CPAs and may
have received special training with the FBI, CIA,
or other law enforcement agencies.
– In particular demand are those with the necessary
computer skills to ferret out and combat fraudsters
who use sophisticated technology to perpetrate their
crimes.
– The Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE)
has created a professional certification program for
fraud examiners.
• Most forensic accountants are CPAs and may
have received special training with the FBI, CIA,
or other law enforcement agencies.
MONITORING
• Management may also need to call on

computer forensic specialists for help.
• They assist in discovering, extracting,
safeguarding, and documenting computer
evidence so that its authenticity, accuracy,
and integrity will not succumb to legal
challenges.
MONITORING
• Common incidents investigated by

computer forensic experts include:
– Improper internet usage
– Fraud
– Sabotage
– Loss, theft, or corruption of data
– Retrieving information from emails and
databases that users thought they had erased
– Determining who performed certain actions on
a computer
MONITORING
consultants
MONITORING
• Install Fraud Detection Software
– People who commit fraud tend to follow certain patterns and
leave behind clues.
– Software has been developed to seek out these fraud symptoms.
– Some companies employ neural networks (programs that
mimic the brain and have learning capabilities) which are very
accurate in identifying suspected fraud.
– For example, if a husband and wife were each using the same
credit card in two different stores at the same time, a neural
network would probably flag at least one of the transactions
immediately as suspicious.
– These networks and other recent advances in fraud detection
software are significantly reducing the incidences of credit card
fraud.
MONITORING
consultants
MONITORING
• Implement a Fraud Hotline

– People who witness fraudulent behavior are
often torn between conflicting feelings.
• They want to protect company assets and report
fraud perpetrators.
• But they are uncomfortable in the whistleblower
role and find it easier to remain silent.
– They are particularly reluctant to report if they
know of others who have suffered
repercussions from doing so.
MONITORING
• SOX mandates that companies set up

mechanisms for employees to anonymously
report abuses such as fraud.
– An effective way to comply with the law and resolve
employee concerns is to provide access to an
anonymous hotline.
– Anonymous reporting can be accomplished through:
• Phone lines
• Web-based reporting
• Anonymous emails
• Snail mail
MONITORING
• Outsourcing is available through a number of third
parties and offers several benefits, including:
– Increased confidence on the part of employee that his/her
report is truly anonymous.
– 24/7 availability.
– Often have multilingual capabilities—an important plus for
multinational organizations.
– The outsourcer may be able to do follow up with the
employee if additional information is needed after the initial
contact.
– The employee can be advised of the outcome of his report.
– Low cost.
MONITORING
• A downside to anonymous reporting

mechanisms is that they will produce a
significant amount of petty or slanderous reports
that do not require investigation.
• The ACFE’s 2004 Report to the Nation indicates
that companies without fraud hotlines had
median fraud losses that were 140% higher than
companies that had fraud hotlines.
SUMMARY
• In this chapter, you’ve learned about basic internal control
concepts and why computer control and security are so
important.
• You’ve learned about the similarities and differences between
the COBIT, COSO, and ERM control frameworks.
• You’ve learned about the major elements in the internal
control environment of a company and the four types of
control objectives that companies need to set.
• You’ve also learned about events that affect uncertainty and
how these events can be identified.
• You’ve explored how the Enterprise Risk Management model
is used to assess and respond to risk, as well as the control
activities that are commonly used in companies.
• Finally, you’ve learned how organizations communicate
information and monitor control processes.

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HAPTER 6

Control and Accounting

• Why AIS Threats Are Increasing

• Some vocabulary terms for this chapter:

• Control and Security are Important

• To use IT in achieving control objectives,

• Control objectives are the same regardless of

• One of the primary objectives of an AIS is to

• It is much easier to build controls into a

• In today’s dynamic business environment,

• Internal control is the process implemented by the

• Internal control is the process implemented by the

• Internal control is the process implemented by the

• Internal control is the process implemented by the

• Internal control is the process implemented by the

• Internal control is the process implemented by the

• Internal control is the process implemented by the

• Internal control is a process because:

• Internal control systems have inherent

• Internal controls perform three important

• Internal controls perform three important

• Internal controls perform three important

• Internal controls are often classified as:

• Internal controls are often classified as:

• An effective system of internal controls

• They must report specific information to the company’s audit

• Auditors cannot perform certain non-audit services, such as:

• Permissible non-audit services must be approved by the

• Members must be on the company’s board

• A number of frameworks have been

• A number of frameworks have been

• The COBIT framework allows:

• The framework addresses the issue of

• The framework addresses the issue of

• COBIT consolidates standards from 36 different

• A number of frameworks have been

• COSO’s Internal Control Framework

• In 1992, COSO issued the Internal

• COSO’s internal control model has five

• COSO’s internal control model has five

• COSO’s internal control model has five

• COSO’s internal control model has five

• COSO’s internal control model has five

• A number of frameworks have been

• Nine years after COSO issued the preceding

• Intent of ERM is to achieve all goals of the

• ERM defines risk management as:

• Basic principles behind ERM:

• Basic principles behind ERM:

– The framework should help management

• Columns at the top

• Columns at the top

• The horizontal rows are

• The horizontal rows are

• Ensures that management implements a process to formulate

• The horizontal rows are

• The horizontal rows are

• The ERM model is

• ERM Framework Vs. the Internal

• These issues led to COSO’s development of the

– Controls are flexible and relevant because

• Over time, ERM will probably become the

• Internal environment consists of the following: