UNIT-IV

WIRELESS WIDE AREA NETWORK

Overview:
¤ Overview of UTMS Terrestrial Radio access network

¤ UMTS Core network Architecture:

¤ 3G-MSC, 3G-SGSN, 3G-GGSN, SMS-GMSC/SMS-IWMSC, Firewall

¤ DNS/DHCP-High speed Downlink packet access (HSDPA)

¤ LTE network architecture and protocol

Wireless Spectrum
• Left: long, low-power, low-energy waves

3
 1G

2G

Cellular Spectrum
4
Spectrum Allocation History
MHz Spectrum Use Time
5.15 – 5.35 802.11a 2002
2400 – 2483 Bluetooth (802.15) 2001
2400 – 2483 homeRF 2000
1850 – 1990 PCS cell phone 1996
806 – 902 AMPS cell phone 1980
512 – 806 UHF TV 1949
54 – 216 VHF TV 1941
88 – 108 FM Radio 1935
0.535 – 1.6 AM Radio 1921

5
Architecture Perspective
Wireless Networks
• WAN – Wide Area Network
• Ranged up to 2500 meters, GSM, GPRS, …
• LAN – Local Area Network
• Ranged up to 100 meters, 802.11b, …
• PAN – Personal Area Network
• Low-power, short-range network
• Ranged up to 10 meters
• Bluetooth, IR, …

6
 Personal Area Network Local Area Network Wide Area Network
1-20 Mbps 11-54 Mbps 9-144 Kbps

Three Wireless Internets

CSC1720 – Introduction to Internet All copyrights reserved by C.C. Cheung 2003. 7
WAN Topology

8
LAN Topology

All copyrights reserved by C.C. Cheung 2003. 9

PAN Topology

Wireless PAN module

10
Wireless data rates

Wireless data rate Wireless device

9.6 kbps Web phones
14.4 kbps Pagers, Web phones
19.2 kbps Pagers
128 kbps Handhelds
11 Mbps Handhelds using wireless LAN

11
Informative Perspective
How wireless works?
• Including Wireless network and Wired network

12
Focus on the 3G
Network Evolution

2G 3G
1G TDMA & GSM
CDMA & WCDMA
Code Division Multiple
FDMA Time Division Multiple
Access & Wide CDMA
Frequency Division Access
Multiple Access 1990s – callers use a
shorter bandwidth
1980s – each calling 1990s – callers
2000s – Each call is
party is allocated a timeshare a frequency
spread, randomly
dedicated frequency channel: nine users use
broken down and
channel: 3 users use 3 channels
mixed: ten callers use
three channels one channel.

13
1G, 2G, 3G Networks
1G
• Circuit-switched, analog signals, Voice only
2G
• Circuit-switched, digital signals, voice or data overlay, 9 kbps or 19 kbps
2.5G - GPRS
3G
• Packet-switched, Transparent roaming, 2Mbps, Identification of caller location

14
Cellular Family Tree
1G introduced by AT&T in 1983, only analog cellular telephony.
2G introduced in 1987 in Europe. Three primary wireless
standards:
• TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
• GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)
• CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
2.5G supports faster wireless data services, GSM extensions.
3G & 4G provide wider bandwidth and higher data rates for
mobile users.

15
Bandwidth & Time

All copyrights reserved by C.C. Cheung 2003. 16

Frequency Divided Multiple Access
(Used in analog and digital systems)
17
Time Divided Multiple Access
(Used in digital systems, FDMA is a foundation)
18
 Code Divided Multiple Access
(All Users talk on the SAME frequency. Digital codes divide the conversations)

19
3G

Wireless Generations Forrester 12/1999

20
 1.25 MHz

CDMA2000
1xEV

5 MHz
up to 2.4
Mbps

DATA
1.25 MHz 1.25 MHz
up to 2.0 Mbps
DATA
1.25 MHz DATA Up to 307 kbps
DATA Up to 115 kbps
14.4 kbps VOICE
INCREASED VOICE
VOICE VOICE CAPACITY
95A 95B CDMA2000 1x/ WCDMA /
cdmaOne 1xEV CDMA2000

A A B A B 1x/ A B 1x/ World

1xEV 1xEV Phone

1995 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

CDMA Present and Future

21
3G Spectrum in different Countries

22
INTRODUCTION
¤ Third-generation (3G) wireless systems offer access to services anywhere from a
single terminal; the old boundaries between telephony, information, and
entertainment services are disappearing.
¤ Mobility is built into many of the services currently considered as fixed, especially
in such areas as high speed access to the Internet, entertainment, information, and
electronic commerce (e-commerce) services.
¤ The distinction between the range of services offered via wireline or wireless is
becoming less and less clear and, as the evolution toward 3G mobile services
speeds up, these distinctions will disappear in the first decade of the new
millennium.
Applications for a 3G wireless network range from simple voice-only
communications to simultaneous video, data, voice, and other multimedia
applications.

One of the main benefits of 3G is that it allows a broad range of wireless

services to be provided efficiently to many different users.
Packet-based Internet Protocol (IP) technology is at the core of the 3G
services. Users have continuous access to on-line information.

E-mail messages arrive at hand-held terminals nearly instantaneously and

business users are able to stay permanently connected to the company
intranet.

Wireless users are able to make video conference calls to the office and surf
the Internet simultaneously, or play computer games interactively with
friends in other locations.
A three-part strategy for evolving its IS-136 TDMA-based networks to 3G wireless
networks to satisfy International Mobile Telephony-2000 requirements. The strategy
consists of:

¤ Enhancing the voice and data capabilities of the existing 30 kHz carrier (IS-136)

¤ Adding a 200 kHz carrier for high-speed data (384 kbps) in high mobility applications

¤ Introducing a 1.6 MHz carrier for very high-speed data (2 Mbps) in low- mobility
applications
GSM Evolution for Data

From a radio access perspective, adding 3G capabilities to 2G systems mainly

means supporting higher data rates.

Depending on the spectrum situation, two different migration paths can be

supported:

• Reframing of existing spectrum bands

• New or modified spectrum bands

Two 3G radio access schemes are identified to support the different spectrum
scenarios:

1. Enhanced data rates for GSM evolution (EDGE) with high-level modulation in
a 200 kHz TDMA channel is based on plug-in transceiver equipment, thereby
allowing the migration of existing bands in small spectrum segments.

2. Universal mobile telecommunications services (UMTS) is a new radio access

network based on 5 MHz WCDMA and optimized for efficient support of 3G
services. UMTS can be used in both new and existing spectra.
GPRS (General Packet Radio Services)
¤ General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) is a packet based wireless communication
service that promises data rates from 56 up to 114 Kbps and continuous connection
to the Internet for mobile phone and computer users.

¤ The higher data rates allow users to take part in video conferences and interact with
multimedia Web sites and similar applications using mobile handheld devices as
well as notebook computers.

¤ GPRS is based on Global System for Mobile (GSM) communication and complements
existing services such circuit-switched cellular phone connections and the Short
Message Service (SMS).
¤ GPRS packet-based services cost users less than circuit-switched services
since communication channels are being used on a shared-use, as-packets-
are-needed basis rather than dedicated to only one user at a time.

¤ GPRS is an evolutionary step toward Enhanced Data GSM Environment

(EDGE) and Universal Mobile Telephone Service (UMTS).
 EDGE
Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution
¤ Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) (also known
as Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), or IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC), or Enhanced
Data rates for Global Evolution) is a digital mobile phone technology that
allows improved data transmission rates as a backward-compatible extension
of GSM.

¤ EDGE is considered a pre-3G radio technology and is part

of ITU's 3G definition.

¤ EDGE was deployed on GSM networks beginning in 2003 – initially

by Cingular (now AT&T) in the United States.
HIGH SPEED PACKET ACCESS (HSPA)
¤ High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) is an amalgamation of two mobile protocols,
High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) and High Speed Uplink Packet
Access (HSUPA), that extends and improves the performance of
existing 3G mobile telecommunication networks using the WCDMA protocols.

¤ A further improved 3GPP standard, Evolved High Speed Packet Access (also
known as HSPA+), was released late in 2008 with subsequent worldwide
adoption beginning in 2010.

¤ The newer standard allows bit-rates to reach as high as 337 Mbit/s in the
downlink and 34 Mbit/s in the uplink. However, these speeds are rarely
achieved in practice.
 UMTS
(Universal Mobile Telecommunication Service)
¤ UMTS is a third-generation (3G) broadband, packet-based transmission of text,
digitized voice, video, and multimedia at data rates up to 2 megabits per second
(Mbps).

¤ UMTS offers a consistent set of services to mobile computer and phone users, no
matter where they are located in the world. UMTS is based on the Global System
for Mobile (GSM) communication standard.

¤ Once UMTS is fully available, computer and phone users can be constantly
attached to the Internet wherever they travel and, as they roam, will have the
same set of capabilities. Users will have access through a combination of
terrestrial wireless and satellite transmissions.
¤ Until UMTS is fully implemented, users can use multi-mode devices that switch to the
currently available technology (such as GSM 900 and 1800) where UMTS is not yet
available.
¤ Previous cellular telephone systems were mainly circuit-switched, meaning connections
were always dependent on circuit availability.
¤ A packet-switched connection uses the Internet Protocol (IP), meaning that a virtual
connection is always available to any other end point in the network.
¤ UMTS also makes it possible to provide new services like alternative billing methods or
calling plans.
¤ For instance, users can choose to pay-per-bit, pay-per-session, flat rate, or asymmetric
bandwidth options.
¤ The higher bandwidth of UMTS also enables other new services like video
conferencing or IPTV.

¤ UMTS may allow the Virtual Home Environment (VHE) to fully develop,
where a roaming user can have the same services to either at home, in the
office or in the field through a combination of transparent terrestrial and
satellite connections.

¤ The electromagnetic radiation spectrum for UMTS has been identified as

frequency bands 1885-2025 MHz for future IMT-2000 systems, and 1980-
2010 MHz and 2170-2200 MHz for the satellite portion of UMTS systems
UMTS TERRESTRIAL RADIO ACCESS NETWORK OVERVIEW
The UTRAN consists of a set of radio network subsystems (RNSs).The RNS has
two main logical elements: Node B and an RNC.
The RNS is responsible for the radio resources and transmission/reception in a
set of cells. A cell (sector) is one coverage area served by a broadcast channel.
SGSN-Serving GPRS Support Node
MSC-Mobile Switching Center
GMSC-Gateway Mobile Switching Center
GGSN- Gateway GPRS Support Node
Migrating from GSM/GPRS to UMTS
From a GSM/GPRS network, the following network elements can be reused:
Home Location Register (HLR)
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
Mobile Switching Center (MSC) (vendor dependent)
Authentication Center (AUC)
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) (vendor dependent)
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
From a GSM/GPRS communication radio network, the following elements
cannot be reused:
Base station controller (BSC)
Base transceiver station (BTS)
¤ An RNC is responsible for the use and allocation of all the radio resources of
the RNS to which it belongs.

¤ The RNC also handles the user voice and packet data traffic, performing the
actions on the user data streams that are necessary to access the radio
bearers.
The responsibilities of an RNC are:
1. Intra UTRAN handover
2. Macro diversity combining/splitting of Iub data streams
3. Frame synchronization
4. Radio resource management
5. Outer loop power control
6. Iu interface user plane setup
7. Serving RNS (SRNS) relocation
8. Radio resource allocation (allocation of codes, etc.)
9. Frame selection/distribution function necessary for soft handover
10. UMTS radio link control (RLC) sublayers function execution
11. Termination of MAC, RLC, and RRC protocols for transport channels
12. Iub’s user plane protocols termination
A Node B is responsible for radio transmission and reception in one or more
cells to/from the user equipment (UE).
The following are the responsibilities of the Node B:
1. Termination of Iub interface from RNC
2. Termination of MAC protocol for transport channels RACH, FACH
3. Termination of MAC, RLC, and RRC protocols for transport channels
4. Radio environment survey (BER estimate, receiving signal strength)
5. Inner loop power control
6. Open loop power control
7. Radio channel coding/decoding
8. Macro diversity combining/splitting of data streams from its cells (sectors)
9. Termination of Uu interface from UE
10. Error detection on transport channels and indication to higher layers
11. FEC encoding/decoding and interleaving/deinterleaving of transport channels
12. Multiplexing of transport channels and demultiplexing of coded composite transport channels
13. Power weighting and combining of physical channels
14. Modulation and spreading/demodulation and despreading of physical channels
15. Frequency and time (chip, bit, slot, frame) synchronization
16. RF processing
UTRAN LOGICAL INTERFACES
In UTRAN protocol structure is designed so that layers and planes are logically
independent of each other and, if required, parts of protocol structure can be
changed in the future without affecting other parts.

The protocol structure contains two main layers

 Radio Network Layer(RNL)

 Transport Network Layer (TNL)

In the RNL, all UTRAN-related functions are visible, whereas the TNL deals with
transport technology selected to be used for UTRAN but without any UTRAN-
specific changes.
It contains three planes,

• Control Plane

• Transport Network Control Plane

• User Plane

• The control plane is used for all UMTS-specific control signaling. It includes
the application protocol i.e., radio access network application part (RANAP)
in Iu, radio network subsystem application part (RNSAP) in Iur and node B
application part (NBAP) in Iub.
• The application protocol is used for setting up bearers to the UE.
• User information is carried by the user plane. The user plane includes data
stream(s), and data bearer(s) for data stream(s).

• Each data stream is characterized by one or more frame protocols specified

for that interface.

• The transport network control plane carries all control signaling within the
transport layer.

• It contains access link control application part (ALCAP) required to set up the
transport bearers (data bearers) for the user plane.

• It also includes the signaling bearer needed for the ALCAP.

Iu INTERFACE:

¤ The UMTS Iu interface is the open logical interface that interconnects one
UTRAN to the UMTS core network (UCN).

¤ On the UTRAN side the Iu interface is terminated at the RNC, and at the UCN
side it is terminated at U-MSC.

¤ The Iu interface consists of three different protocol planes — the radio

network control plane (RNCP), the transport network control plane (TNCP),
and the user plane (UP).
The RNCP performs the following functions:

1. It carries information for the general control of UTRAN radio network

operations.

2. It carries information for control of UTRAN in the context of each specific

call.

3. It carries user call control (CC) and mobility management (MM) signaling
messages.
The control plane serves two service domains in the core network, the packet-
switched (PS) domain and circuit-switched (CS) domain.
The CS domain supports circuit-switched services. Some examples of CS
services are voice and fax. The CS domain can also provide intelligent services
such as voice mail and free phone.
The CS domain connects to PSTN/ISDN networks. The CS domain is expected
to evolve from the existing 2G GSM PLMN.

The PS domain deals with PS services. Some examples of PS services are

Internet access and multimedia services.
Since Internet connectivity is provided, all services currently available on the
Internet such as search engines and e-mail are available to mobile users. The
PS domain connects to IP networks.
PS protocol architecture on lu interface

The SSCF and SSCOP layers are

specifically designed for signaling
transport in ATM networks, and take
care of signaling connection
management functions.

AAL5 is used for segmenting the data

to ATM cells.
CS protocol architecture on lu interface

• The user plane (UP) carries user voice and packet

data information.
• AAL2 is used for the following services: narrowband
speech, unrestricted digital information service (up
to 64 kbps
• AAL5 is used for the following services: non-real-
time PS data service (i.e., best effort packet access)
and real-time PS data.
I Interface
ur

The connection between two RNCs (serving RNC (SRNC) and drift RNC (DRNC))
is the Iur interface.
It is used in soft handoff scenarios when different macro diversity streams of
one communication are supported by Node Bs that belong to different RNCs.
Communication between one RNC and one Node B of two different RNCs are
realized through the Iur interface.
Three different protocol planes are defined for it:
1. Radio network control plane (RNCP)

2. Transport network control plane (TNCP)

3. User plane (UP)

The Iur interface is used to carry:

1. Information for the control of radio resources in the context of specific

service request of one mobile on RNCP

2. Information for the control of the transport network used within UTRAN on
TNCP

3. User voice and packet data information on UP

The protocols used on this interface are:
• Radio access network application part (RANAP)
• DCH frame protocol (DCHFP)
• RACH frame protocol (RACHFP)
• FACH frame protocol (FACHFP)
• Access link control application part (ALCAP)
• Signaling connection control part (SCCP)
• Message transfer part 3-B (MTP3-B)
• Signaling ATM adaptation layer for network-to-network interface
Initially, this interface was designed to support the inter-RNC soft handoff, but
more features were added during the development of the standard. The Iur
provides the following four functions:

1. Basic inter-RNC mobility support

• Support of SRNC relocation

• Support of inter-RNC cell and UTRAN registration area update

• Support of inter-RNC packet paging

• Reporting of protocol errors

2. Dedicated channel traffic support

• Establishment, modification, and release of a dedicated channel in the DRNC

due to hard and soft handoff in the dedicated channel state

• Setup and release of dedicated transport connections across the Iur interface

• Transfer of DCH transport blocks between SRNC and DRNC

• Management of radio links in the DRNS via dedicated measurement report

procedures and power setting procedures
3. Common channel traffic support

• Setup and release of the transport connection across the Iur for common channel
data streams

• Splitting of the MAC layer between the SRNC (MAC-d) and DRNC (MAC-c and
MAC-sh); the scheduling for downlink data transmission is performed in the DRNC

• Flow control between the MAC-d and MAC-c/MAC-sh

4. Global resource management support

• Transfer of cell measurements between two RNCs

• Transfer of Node B timing between two RNCs

lub Interface

The connection between the RNC and Node B is the Iub interface. There is one Iub
interface for each Node B.

The Iub interface is used for all of the communications between Node B and the RNC
of the same RNS.

Three different protocol planes are defined for it.

• Radio network control plane (RNCP)

• Transport network control plane (TNCP)

• User plane (UP)

The Iub interface is used to carry:

• Information for the general control of Node B for radio network operation on
RNCP

• Information for the control of radio resources in the context of specific

service request of one mobile on RNCP

• Information for the control of a transport network used within UTRAN on

TCNP

• User CC and MM signaling message on RNCP

• User voice and packet data information on UP

The protocols used on this interface include:

• Node B application part protocol (NBAP)

• DCH frame protocol (DCHFP)

• RACH frame protocol (RACHFP)

• FACH frame protocol (FACHFP)

• Access link control application part (ALCAP)

• SSCP or TCP and IP

• MTP3-B

• SAAL-UNI (SSCF-UNI, SSCOP, and AAL5)

Uu Interface

The UMTS Uu interface is the radio interface between a Node B and one of its
UE. The Uu is the interface through which UE accesses the fixed part of the
system.
UMTS CORE NETWORK
ARCHITECTURE
UMTS CORE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
◊ UMTS core network (UCN) consists of a CS entity for providing voice and CS data
services and a PS entity for providing packet-based services.

◊ The logical architecture offers a clear separation between the CS domain and PS
domain.

◊ The CS domain contains the functional entities: mobile switching center (MSC) and
gateway MSC (GMSC).

◊ The PS domain comprises the functional entities: serving GPRS support node
(SGSN), gateway GPRS support node (GGSN), domain name server (DNS), dynamic
host configuration protocol (DHCP) server, packet charging gateway, and firewalls.
The core network can be split into the following different functional areas:
◊ Functional entities needed to support PS services (e.g. 3G-SGSN, 3G-GGSN)

◊ Functional entities needed to support CS services (e.g. 3G-MSC/VLR)

◊ Functional entities common to both types of services (e.g. 3G-HLR)

Other areas that can be considered part of the core network include:

◊ Network management systems (billing and provisioning, service management,

element management, etc.)

◊ IN system (service control point (SCP), service signaling point (SSP), etc.)

◊ ATM/SDH/IP switch/transport infrastructure

3G-MSC
• The 3G-MSC is the main CN element to provide CS services. The 3G-MSC also
provides the necessary control and corresponding signaling interfaces including
Signal System7(SS7), MAP, ISUP.
• The 3G MSC provides the interconnection to external networks like PSTN and ISDN.
The following functionality is provided by the 3G-MSC:
◊ Mobility management: Handles attach, authentication, updates to the HLR, SRNS
relocation, and inter-systems handover.

◊ Call management: Handles call set-up messages from/to the UE.

◊ Supplementary services: Handles call-related supplementary services such as call

waiting, etc.
CS data services: It provides rate adaptation and message translation for circuit
mode data services, such as fax.

SS7, MAP and RANAP interfaces: The 3G-MSC is able to complete originating or
terminating calls in the network in interaction with other entities of a mobile
network, e.g., HLR, AUC (Authentication center).

ATM/AAL2 Connection to UTRAN for transportation of user plane traffic across

the Iu interface. Higher rate CS data rates may be supported using a different
adaptation layer.
◊ Short message services (SMS): This functionality allows the user to send and
receive SMS data to and from the SMS-GMSC/SMS-IWMSC (Inter working
MSC).

◊ VLR functionality: The VLR is a database that may be located within the 3G-
MSC and can serve as intermediate storage for subscriber data in order to
support subscriber mobility.

◊ OAM (operation, administration, and maintenance) agent functionality.

3G-SGSN

◊ The 3G-SGSN is the main Core Network element for PS services. The 3G-SGSN
provides the necessary control functionality both toward the UE and the 3G-GGSN.

◊ It also provides the appropriate signaling and data interfaces including connection
to an IP-based network toward the 3G-GGSN, SS7 toward the HLR/EIR/AUC and
TCP/IP or SS7 toward the UTRAN.

The 3G-SGSN provides the following functions:

Session management: Handles session set-up messages from/to the UE and the
GGSN and operates Admission Control and QoS mechanisms.
Iu and Gn MAP interface: The 3G-SGSN is able to complete originating or
terminating sessions in the network by interaction with other entities of a
mobile network, e.g., GGSN, HLR, AUC. It also controls/communicates with
UTRAN using RANAP.

ATM/AAL5 physical connection to the UTRAN for transportation of user data

plane traffic across the Iu interface using GPRS tunneling protocol (GTP).
SMS: This functionality allows the user to send and receive SMS data to and from the
SMS-GMSC /SMS-IWMSC.

Mobility management: Handles attach, authentication, updates to the HLR and SRNS
relocation, and intersystem handover.

Subscriber database functionality: This database (similar to the VLR) is located within
the 3G-SGSN and serves as intermediate storage for subscriber data to support
subscriber mobility.

Charging: The SGSN collects charging information related to radio network usage by
the user.

OAM (operation, administration, and maintenance) agent functionality.

3G-GGSN

The GGSN provides interworking with the external PS network. It is connected

with SGSN via an IP-based network. The GGSN may optionally support an SS7
interface with the HLR to handle mobile terminated packet sessions.

The 3G-GGSN provides the following functions:

• Maintain information locations at SGSN level (macro-mobility)

• Gateway between UMTS packet network and external data networks (e.g. IP,
X.25)

• Gateway-specific access methods to intranet (e.g. PPP termination)

User data screening/security can include subscription based, user controlled,
or network controlled screening.

User level address allocation: The GGSN may have to allocate (depending on
subscription) a dynamic address to the UE upon context activation. This
functionality may be carried out by use of the DHCP function.

Charging: The GGSN collects charging information related to external data

network usage by the user.

OAM (operation, administration, and maintenance) agent functionality.

SMS-GMSC/SMS-IWMSC

The overall requirement for these two nodes is to handle the SMS from point
to point.

The functionality required can be split into two parts. The SMS-GMSC is an
MSC capable of receiving a terminated short message from a service center,
interrogating an HLR for routing information and SMS information, and
delivering the short message to the SGSN of the recipient UE.
The SMS-GMSC provides the following functions:

• Reception of short message packet data unit (PDU)

• Interrogation of HLR for routing information

• Forwarding of the short message PDU to the MSC or SGSN using the routing
information
The SMS-IWMSC is an MSC capable of receiving an originating short message
from within the Public Land Mobile Network(PLMN) and submitting it to the
recipient service center.

The SMS-IWMSC provides the following functions:

• Reception of the short message PDU from either the 3G-SGSN or 3G-MSC

• Establishing a link with the addressed service center

• Transferring the short message PDU to the service center

FIREWALL
¤ A firewall is a network security device that grants or rejects network access

to traffic flows between an untrusted zone (e.g., the Internet) and a trusted

zone (e.g., a private or corporate network).

¤ The firewall acts as the “traffic cop” in the network, as all communication

should flow through it and it is where traffic is granted or rejected access.

Access Control Lists
¤ Early on, the firewall function was initially performed by Access Control Lists
(ACLs), often on routers.

¤ ACLs are essentially rules written out that determine whether network access
should be granted or rejected to specific IP addresses.

¤ For example, an ACL can have a line that states all traffic from IP 172.168.2.2
must be rejected, or to allow all traffic on port 80 from 172.168.2.2 to the
web server at 10.10.10.201.
Packet filtering
• Data travels on the internet in small pieces; these are called packets. Each
packet has certain metadata attached, like where it is coming from, and
where it should be sent to.
• The easiest thing to do is to look at the metadata. Based on rules, certain
packets are then dropped or rejected. All firewalls can do this. It is done at
the network layer
Stateful packet inspection

¤ In addition to the simple packet filtering (above) this kind of firewall also keeps track of
connections.

¤ A packet can be the start of a new connection, or it can be part of an existing connection.
If it is neither of the two, it is probably useless and can be dropped.

Application-layer firewalls

¤ Application-layer firewalls do not just look at the metadata; they also look at the actual
data transported.

¤ They know how certain protocols work, for example FTP or HTTP. They can then look if the
data that is in the packet is valid (for that protocol). If it is not, it can be dropped.
Types of firewalls
In general, there are two types of firewalls:
Software-based firewalls: these are often run as additional programs on
computers that are used for other things.
They are often known as personal firewalls which can be updates on personal
computers.
Hardware-based firewalls: Hardware based firewalls run on a dedicated
computer (or appliance).
Often, these offer a better performance than software firewalls, but they are
also more expensive.
DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION
PROTOCOL
(DHCP)
 HISTORY
• DHCP was created by the Dynamic Host Configuration Working Group of the
Internet Engineering Task Force
• October 1993: RFC 1531 initially defined DHCP as a standard-track
protocol succeeding the Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP), which is a network
protocol used by a network client to obtain an IP address from a configuration
server
• October 1997: RFC 2131 released is the current DHCP definition for Internet
Protocol version 4 (IPv4) networks
• The extensions of DHCP for IPv6 (DHCPv6) were published as RFC 3315
What is DHCP?
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
• It is a method for assigning Internet Protocol (IP)
addresses permanently or to individual computers in
an organization’s network
• DHCP lets a network administrator supervise and
distribute IP addresses from a central point and
automatically sends a new IP address when a
computer is plugged into a different place in the
network
Motivation for DHCP
• Configuration parameters for network hosts
IP address
Router
Subnet Mask
Two types of IP Addresses
• DHCP is used to assign IP addresses to hosts or workstations on the network
• Two types of IP addresses:
Static
Is a number that is assigned to a computer by an Internet service provider (ISP) to be its
permanent address on the Internet
Dynamic
The temporary IP address is called a dynamic IP address
Why is DHCP Important?
• Important when it comes to adding a machine to a network
• When computer requests an address, the administrator would have
to manually configure the machine
Mistakes are easily made
Causes difficulty for both administrator as well as neighbors on the network
• DHCP solves all the hassle of manually adding a machine to a network
How does DHCP work?
• When a client needs to start up TCP/IP operations, it broadcasts a request for
address information

• The DHCP server will not reallocate the address during the lease period and will
attempt to return the same address every time the client requests an address

• The client can extend its lease or send a message to the server before the lease
expires it that it no longer needs the address so it can be released and assigned to
another client on the network
Advantages of DHCP
• DHCP minimizes the administrative burden

• By using DHCP there is no chance to conflict IP address

• By using DHCP relay agent you provide IP address to another network

Disadvantages of DHCP
• When DHCP server is unavailable, client is unable to access
enterprises network

• Your machine name does not change when you get a new IP address
Security problem
• DHCP is an unauthenticated protocol
When connecting to a network, the user is not required to provide credentials in
order to obtain a lease
Malicious users with physical access to the DHCP-enabled network can instigate a
denial-of-service attack on DHCP servers by requesting many leases from the
server, thereby depleting the number of leases that are available to other DHCP
clients
Easy to set-up and administer
• DHCP servers are easy to administer and can be set-up in just a few
minutes

• Client addresses are assigned automatically

Limitations
• Some machines on your network need to be at fixed addresses, for
example servers and routers
• You need to be able to assign a machine to run the DHCP server
continually as it must be available at all times when clients need IP
access
Conclusion
• Assigning client addresses automatically is by far the easiest option of the two:
 Set-up automatically by DHCP server
 Set-up manually

• To set-up clients automatically all you need to do is set your TCP/IP control panels
to receive automatically

• If you intend to set up your client computers manually, make sure that the assigned
IP address is in the same range of your default router address and that it is unique
to your private network
DOMAIN NAME SERVER(DNS)
Introduction

1. What is the IP
address of
udel.edu ?

It is 128.175.13.92

1. What is the
host name of
128.175.13.74

It is strauss.udel.edu

119
 DNS Components

There are 3 components:

Name Space:
Specifications for a structured name space and data associated with the names
Resolvers:
Client programs that extract information from Name Servers.
Name Servers:
Server programs which hold information about the structure and the names.

120
Name Space

121
Resolvers

A Resolver maps a name to an address and vice versa.

Query

Response

Resolver Name Server

122
Iterative Resolution
a.root
server

a3.nstl a.gtld-
d.com server
5
udel ns1.goo
server gle.com
7
3 iterative response (referral)
“I don't know. Try a.root-servers.net.”
iterative response (referral) 9
“I don't know. Try a.gtld-servers.net.”
1 iterative response (referral)
“I don't know. Try a3.nstld.com.”
iterative response (referral)
2 4 “I don't know. Try ns1.google.com.”
6 iterative response
8 “The IP address of www.google.com
client 10 is 216.239.37.99.”
iterative request
“What is the IP address of
www.google.com?” 123
Recursive Resolution
root
server
edu 3 com
server server
7 4
udel 2 8 google
serve server
6 5
r
9

1
10 recursive request
“What is the IP address of
www.google.com?”
client recursive response
“The IP address of www.google.com is
216.239.37.99.”
124
HSPA(High Speed Packet Access)
INTRODUCTION
Access methods

• TDMA – time division multiple access

• CDMA - code division multiple access
• FDMA - frequency division multiple access
• W-CDMA - wideband code division multiple access
GSM data transmission (2G)

• Global System for Mobile communications

• FDD (frequency division duplex)

• TDMA/FDMA

• Modulation: Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK)

• Theoretical bandwidth: 9.6 Kbps

GPRS (2.5G)

• General Packet Radio Service

• Packet switched

• Relies on FDD/FDMA for RTS/CTS and TDMA for data transfers

• Theoretical maximum bandwidth of 171.2 Kbps (downlink)

• Practical bandwidth is around 57 Kbps (downlink)

EDGE (2.75G)
• Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (a.k.a EGPRS)
• Packet switched
• Modulation
GMSK (Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying)
8-PSK (Phase Shift Keying)
• Multiple Access
Combination of TDMA & FDMA
• Can be deployed on existing GPRS networks with minimal cost
• Theoretical bandwidth: 473.6 Kbps (8-PSK, 8x59.2Kbps per time slot)
• Practical bandwidth up to 384 Kbps
HSCSD (2.5G)
• High Speed Circuit Switched Data

• Circuit switched

• TDMA-based

• Uses multiple time slots which are reserved to 1 user

• Lower latency then packet switched technologies: no need for RTS/CTS

• Theoretical bandwidth: 115.2Kbps (8 x 14.4Kbps per timeslot)

• Practical bandwidth: 57.6Kbps (4 time slots)

UMTS (3G)
• Universal Mobile Telecommunications System

• W-CDMA as air interface

• Wide spectrum: 2x5Mhz channels for downlink/uplink

• Compatible with GSM, but uses different frequency bands

• But spectrum licenses are expensive

• 3G+ Data transmission standards: FOMA, HSDPA/HSUPA, HSPA+, UMTS-TDD

W-CDMA
• Wideband Code Division Multiple Access

• Developed by NTT Docomo

• Broke strong stand of Qualcomm in CDMA standards

• Used in FOMA network in Japan, adopted in UMTS standards

• 2 types of duplexing: FDD and TDD

• Pair of 5Mhz channels (vs. 1x, 3x, pairs of 1.25Mhz in CDMA2000)

FOMA
• Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access

• First 3G service by NTT Docomo

• Launched in 2001 in Japan

• Practical bandwidth (cited by Docomo): 3.6 Mbps downlink, 384Kbps uplink

• Initial implementation was power inefficient

• Now moved to use HSDPA/HSUPA standard over W-CDMA

HSDPA
• High Speed Downlink Packet Access

• Gaining foothold quickly: uses existing 3G netoworks infrastructure

• Adaptive Modulation and Coding: based on signal quality raise to 16QAM (Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation) with 3.6Mb/s and up rates, or drop back to QPSK (Quadrature
Phase Shift Keying)

• Fast Packet Scheduling: base station determines how much data to send to devices
based on their link strength
• Hybrid Automatic Repeat reQuest (HARQ): Store erroneous packets. Request
retransmit of corrupt packets and combine.

• Shorter TTI (Transmission Time Interval) of 2ms

• High Speed Downlink Shared Channel (HS-DSCH) with constant Spreading Factor
16 (SF-16) CDMA codes (variable in CDMA)

• transmitted at constant power while modulation, coding and number of

codes change according to signal conditions
HSUPA
• High Speed Uplink Packet Access (aka EUL – Enhanced UpLink)
• Same techniques as HSDPA for modulation
• Dedicated uplink channel
• HARQ
• Fast Packet Scheduling: device initiates the transmission
• Scheduled: base station dynamically sets power level of the device
transmission
• Non-Scheduled: Constant power level set by the device
• Theoretical bandwidth: HSDPA 14.4Mbps/ HSUPA 5.76Mbps
• Practical bandwidth is usually capped:
At&t 3G services: HSDPA: 700 Kbps—1.7 Mbps
HSUPA: 500 Kbps—1.2 Mbps
HSPA+
• High Speed Packet Access Evolved

• Enhancement of HSDPA/HSUPA

• Currently developed/deployed

• Increase data rates by addition of MIMO antennas (multiple transmit/receive antennas)

• Continuous Packet Connectivity: reduce uplink interference of dedicated channels when no

data is transmitted

• 64QAM modulation on downlink

• 16QAM modulation on uplink

• Theoretical bandwidth of 42Mbps/11.5Mbps!

High Speed Packet Access
High Speed Packet Access (1/3)
• There were number of pushing forces to improve the packet data capabilities of WCDMA
even further, e.g.
• Growing interest towards rich calls, mobile-TV and music streaming in the wireless domain
• Competitive technologies such as WIMAX

• High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) evolution introduced first downlink counterpart of the
evolution called High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) in Release 5

• Uplink evolution followed later in Release 6 by the name of High Speed Uplink Packet
Access (HSUPA)

• HSPA was originally designed for non-real time traffic with high transmission rate
requirements
High Speed Packet Access (2/3)
HSPA features/properties include e.g.
• Higher order modulation and coding
Higher throughput and peak data rates

• In theory up to 5,8 Mbps in the uplink and 14 Mbps in the downlink without
Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs (MIMO)
• Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs (MIMO)
Roughly speaking equals to additional transmitter and receiver antennas

• Fast scheduling in the Node B

Possibility to take advantage of channel conditions with lower latency
High Speed Packet Access (3/3)
• Link adaptation in downlink
Possibility to adjust the used modulation and coding scheme according to be
appropriate for current radio channel conditions

• Improved retransmission capabilities

Newly introduced layer one retransmissions called as Hybrid Automatic Repeat
Request (HARQ) => reduced delay
Radio Link Control (RLC) level retransmissions still possible

• Shorter frame sizes and thus Transmission Time Intervals (TTI)

With HSDPA 2ms and with HSUPA 10ms and 2ms
WCDMA Background and Evolution

3GPP Rel 5 3GPP Rel 6 3GPP Rel 7

3GPP Rel -99 3GPP Rel 4 (HSDPA) (HSUPA) HSPA+ Further
12/99 03/01 03/02 2H/04 06/07 Releases, (LTE)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Europe
Europe HSDPA HSUPA
Japan (pre-
(commercial) (commercial) (commercial)
commercial)
High Speed Downlink Packet Access
(HSDPA)
The HSDPA concept has been designed to increase packet data throughput by
means of fast physical layer (L1) retransmission and transmission combining as
well as fast link adaptation controlled by the Node B (Base Transceiver Station
(BTS)).
3G HSDPA High Speed Downlink Packet Access is an upgrade to the original 3G UMTS
cellular system that provides a much greater download speeds for data.

With more data being transferred across the downlink than the uplink for data-
centric applications, the upgrade to the downlink was seen as a major priority.

KEY 3G HSDPA TECHNOLOGIES

• Modulation

• Fast HARQ

• Improved scheduling

• Additional channels
Modulation:

One of the keys to the operation of HSDPA is the use of an additional form of
modulation.

Originally W-CDMA had used only QPSK as the modulation scheme, however
under the new system 16-QAM which can carry a higher data rate, but is less
resilient to noise is also used when the link is sufficiently robust.

The robustness of the channel and its suitability to use 16-QAM instead of QPSK is
determined by analyzing information fed back about a variety of parameters. These
include details of the channel physical layer conditions, power control, Quality of
Service (QoS), and information specific to HSDPA.
Fast HARQ:

Fast HARQ (hybrid automatic repeat request), has also been implemented
along with multi-code operation and this eliminates the need for a variable
spreading factor.

By using these approaches all users, whether near or far from the base
station are able to receive the optimum available data rate.
Improved scheduling:

Further advances have been made in the area of scheduling. By moving more
intelligence into the base station, data traffic scheduling can be achieved in a
more dynamic fashion.

This enables variations arising from fast fading can be accommodated and
the cell is even able to allocate much of the cell capacity for a short period of
time to a particular user. In this way the user is able to receive the data as
fast as conditions allow.
Slow fading can be caused by events such as shadowing, where a large
obstruction such as a hill or large building obscures the main signal path
between the transmitter and the receiver.

Fast fading occurs when the coherence time of the channel is small relative
to the delay requirement of the application.
Additional channels:

In order to be able to transport the data in the required fashion, and to

provide the additional responsiveness of the system, additional channels have
been added.
Use of 16QAM within HSDPA
The rate control within HSDPA is achieved dynamically by adjusting both the modulation
and the channel coding.
Both 16WAM and QPSK are used, the higher order 16QAM modulation being used to
provide a higher data rate, but it also requires a better Eb/N0 (effectively signal to noise
ratio).
As a result the 16QAM modulation format is normally used under high signal conditions,
e.g. when the mobile is close to the NodeB and in the clear.
The coding rate as well as the modulation are then selected for each 2ms TTI by the NodeB
according to its assessment of the conditions. In this way the rate control mechanism can
rapidly track the variations that may occur.
HSDPA Hybrid ARQ and soft combining:

Hybrid ARQ or HARQ is hybrid automatic repeat request and it is essentially a form
of the more common ARQ error correction methodology.

When the basic ARQ format is used, error-detection information bits are added to
data to be transmitted. One form of this may be a cyclic redundancy check, CRC.

However when Hybrid ARQ is used, forward error correction (FEC) bits are also
added to the existing error detection bits.

The added error detection means that Hybrid ARQ performs better than ordinary
ARQ in poor signal conditions, but the additional overhead can reduce the
throughput in good signal conditions.
The user equipment or terminal receives the data and decodes it, reporting
back the result to the NodeB after the reception of each block, and in this
way rapid retransmission of any blocks with errors can be undertaken.

This significantly reduces delays, especially under poor radio link conditions
or when the link is changing rapidly.
• Soft combining is a process whereby the user equipment or terminal does
not discard information it cannot decode. Instead it retains it to combine
with any retransmission data to increase the chance of successful decoding
of the data.

• A process called Incremental Redundancy (IR) is also used with the

retransmissions. This process adds additional parity bits in retransmissions to
make the data retransmission more robust.
Fast Retransmissions (1/3)
Rel ‘99 HSPA

RNC
Retransmisson Packet
Packet

NodeB

RLC
ACK/NACK
Retransmisson
UE Layer 1
ACK/NACK

• Radio Link Control (RLC) layer ACK/NACKs also possible with HSPA
Fast Retransmissions (2/3)
UE NodeB RNC

User data

(Re)transmission
RLC
RLC (N)ACK

MAC-d

MAC-hs

(Re)transmission
Layer1
HARQ (N)ACK
Fast Retransmissions (3/3)
• Layer 1 signaling indicates the need of retransmission which leads to much faster round trip
time that with Rel ‘99

• Retransmission procedure with layer 1 retransmissions (HARQ) is done so that decoder does
not get rid of the received symbols if the transmission fails but combines them with new
transmissions

• Retransmissions can operate in two ways:

• Identical retransmissions (soft/chase combining)
• Non-identical retransmissions (incremental redundancy)
HSDPA performance
It will be possible to achieve peak user data rates of 10 Mbps within the 5 MHz
channel bandwidth offered under 3G UMTS.
The new scheme has a number of benefits.
1. It improves the overall network packet data capacity
2. Improves the spectral efficiency
3. Enables networks to achieve a lower delivery cost per bit.
4. Users will see higher data speeds as well as shorter service response times and
better availability of services.
However new mobile designs will need to be able to handle the increased data
throughput rates.
Reports indicate that handsets will need to have at least double the memory
currently contained within handsets. Nevertheless the advantages of 3G HSDPA
mean that it will be widely used as networks are upgraded and new phones
introduced.
Link Adaptation (1/3)

• UE informs the Node B regularly of its channel quality by CQI

messages (Channel Quality Indicator)
Link Adaptation (2/3)

• Adaptive modulation and higher order modulation

(16/64QAM) with HSDPA
16

Instantaneous EsNo [dB]

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Link
-2 adaptation
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time [number of TTIs] adjusts the
16QAM3/4
mode within
16QAM2/4
few ms based
QPSK3/4
on CQI
QPSK2/4
QPSK1/4
Link Adaptation (3/3)

• More complex modulation schemes require more energy per bit to be

transmitted than simply going for transmission with multiple parallel code
channels, thus HSUPA benefits more from using multiple codes
HSDPA Channels

HSDPA requires additional channels to provide the additional data transfer.

These include HS-DSCH, HS-SCCH, HS-DPCCH.

A number of new channels were added to the downlink within HSDPA to

provide the additional data capacity as well as the control required.

The new HSDPA channels are used in the downlink in addition to the existing
3G UMTS channels.
High Speed Downlink Shared Channel, HS-DSCH

• The HS DSCH channel is the data transport channel that all active HSDPA users
connected to the NodeB will use.

• The use of a shared channel is a key characteristic of HSDPA and being a common
resource, the HS-DSCH is dynamically shared between users.

• The HS-DSCH supports adaptive coding and modulation changing to adapt to the
changing conditions within the system.

• The use of the 2ms TTI means that scheduling delays are reduced and it also
enables fast tracking of the channel conditions allowing for the optimum use of the
available resource.
• It is worth noting that the HS-DSCH is not power controlled but rate
controlled. This allows the remaining power, after the other required
channels have been serviced to be used for the HS-DSCH, and this means
that the overall power available is used efficiently.
High Speed Signalling Control Channel, HS-SCCH
This HSDPA channel is used to signal the scheduling to the users every 2 ms
according to the TTI.
The HS-SCCH channel carries three main elements of information:
1. It carries the UE identity to allow specific addressing of individual UEs on the
shared control channel.
2. The HS-SCCH carries the Hybrid ARQ to enable the combining process to
proceed.
3. This channel carries the Transport Format and Resource Indicator (TFRI). This
identifies the scheduled resource and its transmission format.
High Speed Dedicated Physical Control Channel, HS-DPCCH
The High Speed Dedicated Physical Control Channel, HS-DPCCH is an HSDPA
channel used to provide feedback to the scheduler and it is located in the
uplink.
The HS-DPCCH channel carries the following information:
1. Channel Quality Information which is used to provide instantaneous
channel information to the scheduler.
2. HARQ ACK/NAK information which is used to provide information back
about the successful receipt and decoding of information and hence to
request the resending information that has not been successfully received.
These channels, HS-DSCH, HS-SCCH, & HS-DPCCH are added to the existing 3G
UMTS channels and provide the additional data capability and adaptivity
required to enable the much faster download speeds provided by 3G HSDPA.
HSDPA UE categories and data rates

• The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) has divided HSDPA UEs or
mobile terminals into twelve categories. These HSDPA categories define the
different characteristics including different HSDPA data rates.

• This allows for different levels of performance to be implemented including

the maximum HSDPA data rate.
HSDPA category definitions
The different HSDPA categories are outlined in the table below. From this it can be sent hat
the overall raw data rate and hence the category is determined by a number of elements
including the maximum number of HS-DSCH codes, TTI, block size, etc.
HS-DSCH MAX NO OF MIN INTER-TTI HSDPA DATA TRANSPORT MAX NO SOFT SUPPORTED
CATEGORY HS-DSCH INTERVAL RATE (MBPS) BLOCK SIZE BITS MOD
CODES SCHEMES
1 5 3 3.6 7298 19200 16QAM, QPSK
2 5 3 3.6 7298 28800 16QAM, QPSK
3 5 2 3.6 7298 28800 16QAM, QPSK
4 5 2 3.6 7298 38400 16QAM, QPSK
5 5 1 3.6 7298 57600 16QAM, QPSK
6 5 1 3.6 7298 67200 16QAM, QPSK
7 10 1 7.2 14411 115200 16QAM, QPSK
8 10 1 7.2 14411 134400 16QAM, QPSK
9 15 1 10.1 20251 172800 16QAM, QPSK
10 15 1 14 27952 172800 16QAM, QPSK
11 5 2 1.8 3630 14400 QPSK
12 5 1 1.8 3630 28800 QPSK
LTE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE AND PROTOCOL
LTE, Long Term Evolution, the successor to UMTS and HSPA is now being deployed
and is the way forwards for high speed cellular services.

In its first forms it was a 3G or as some would call it a 3.99G technology, but with
further additions the technology fulfilled the requirements for a 4G standard. In
this form it was referred to as LTE Advanced.

There has been a rapid increase in the use of data carried by cellular services, and
this increase will only become larger in what has been termed the "data
explosion".

Increased demands for increased data transmission speeds and lower latency,
further development of cellular technology have been required.
 WCDMA HSPA HSPA+ LTE
(UMTS) HSDPA /
HSUPA
Max downlink speed bps 384 k 14 M 28 M 100M
Max uplink speed bps 128 k 5.7 M 11 M 50 M
Latency round trip time approx. 150 ms 100 ms 50ms (max) ~10 ms

3GPP releases Rel 99/4 Rel 5 / 6 Rel 7 Rel 8

Approx years of initial roll out 2003 / 4 2005 / 6 HSDPA 2008 / 9 2009 / 10
2007 / 8 HSUPA
Access methodology CDMA CDMA CDMA OFDMA / SC-
FDMA
 LTE BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
PARAMETER DETAILS
Peak downlink speed 64QAM (Mbps) 100 (SISO), 172 (2x2 MIMO), 326 (4x4 MIMO)

Peak uplink speeds (Mbps) 50 (QPSK), 57 (16QAM), 86 (64QAM)

Data type All packet switched data (voice and data). No circuit switched.
Channel bandwidths (MHz) 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20

Duplex schemes FDD and TDD

Mobility 0 - 15 km/h (optimised),
15 - 120 km/h (high performance)
Latency Idle to active less than 100ms
Small packets ~10 ms
Spectral efficiency Downlink: 3 - 4 times Rel 6 HSDPA
Uplink: 2 -3 x Rel 6 HSUPA
Access schemes OFDMA (Downlink)
SC-FDMA (Uplink)
Modulation types supported QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM (Uplink and downlink)
Along with 3G LTE - Long Term Evolution that applies more to the radio
access technology of the cellular telecommunications system, there is also an
evolution of the core network. Known as SAE - System Architecture Evolution.

This new architecture has been developed to provide a considerably higher

level of performance that is in line with the requirements of LTE.
The new SAE, System Architecture Evolution has also been developed so that
it is fully compatible with LTE Advanced, the new 4G technology.

Therefore when LTE Advanced is introduced, the network will be able to

handle the further data increases with little change.
Reason for SAE System Architecture Evolution
SAE System Architecture Evolution will offer a number of key advantages:

1. Improved data capacity

2. All IP architecture

3. Reduced latency

4. Reduced OPEX and CAPEX

Improved data capacity:

With 3G LTE offering data download rates of 100 Mbps, and the focus of the
system being on mobile broadband, it will be necessary for the network to be
able to handle much greater levels of data.

To achieve this it is necessary to adopt a system architecture that lends itself
to much grater levels of data transfer.
All IP architecture:

When 3G was first developed, voice was still carried as circuit switched data.
Since then there has been a relentless move to IP data.

Accordingly the new SAE, System Architecture Evolution schemes have

adopted an all IP network configuration.
Reduced latency:

With increased levels of interaction being required and much faster

responses, the new SAE concepts have been evolved to ensure that the levels
of latency have been reduced to around 10 ms.

This will ensure that applications using 3G LTE will be sufficiently responsive.
Reduced OPEX and CAPEX:

A key element for any operator is to reduce costs. It is therefore essential

that any new design reduces both the capital expenditure (CAPEX)and the
operational expenditure (OPEX).

The new flat architecture used for SAE System Architecture Evolution means
that only two node types are used.

In addition to this a high level of automatic configuration is introduced and

this reduces the set-up and commissioning time.
There are several common principles used in the development of the LTE SAE network:

1. A common gateway node and anchor point for all technologies.

2. An optimised architecture for the user plane with only two node types.

3. An all IP based system with IP based protocols used on all interfaces.

4. A split in the control / user plane between the MME, mobility management entity and
the gateway.

5. A radio access network / core network functional split similar to that used on WCDMA /
HSPA.

6. Integration of non-3gpp access technologies (e.g. Cdma2000, wimax, etc) using client as
well as network based mobile-IP.
The main element of the LTE SAE network is what is termed the Evolved Packet
Core or EPC. This connects to the eNodeBs as shown in the diagram below.

LTE SAE Evolved Packet Core

LTE Network Architecture
Mobility Management Entity, MME:

The MME is the main control node for the LTE SAE access network, handling a
number of features:
• Idle mode UE tracking

• Bearer activation / de-activation

• Choice of SGW for a UE

• Intra-LTE handover involving core network node location

• Interacting with HSS to authenticate user on attachment and implements roaming restrictions

• It acts as a termination for the Non-Access Stratum (NAS)-layer.

• Provides temporary identities for UEs

Serving Gateway, SGW:

The Serving Gateway, SGW, is a data plane element within the LTE SAE. Its
main purpose is to manage the user plane mobility and it also acts as the
main border between the Radio Access Network, RAN and the core network.

The SGW also maintains the data paths between the eNodeBs and the PDN
Gateways. In this way the SGW forms a interface for the data packet network
at the E-UTRAN.

Also when UEs move across areas served by different eNodeBs, the SGW
serves as a mobility anchor ensuring that the data path is maintained.
PDN Gateway, PGW:
The LTE SAE PDN gateway provides connectivity for the UE to external packet data
networks, fulfilling the function of entry and exit point for UE data.
The UE may have connectivity with more than one PGW for accessing multiple
PDNs.
Policy and Charging Rules Function, PCRF:
This is the generic name for the entity within the LTE SAE EPC which detects the
service flow, enforces charging policy.
For applications that require dynamic policy or charging control, a network
element entitled the Applications Function, AF is used.
In contrast to the circuit-switched model of previous cellular systems, Long
Term Evolution (LTE) has been designed to support only packet-switched
services.

It aims to provide seamless Internet Protocol (IP) connectivity between user
equipment (UE) and the packet data network (PDN), without any disruption
to the end users’ applications during mobility.
While the term “LTE” encompasses the evolution of the Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS) radio access through the Evolved UTRAN
(E-UTRAN)

It is accompanied by an evolution of the non-radio aspects under the term

“System Architecture Evolution” (SAE), which includes the Evolved Packet
Core (EPC) network. Together LTE and SAE comprise the Evolved Packet
System (EPS).
EPS provides the user with IP connectivity to a PDN for accessing the Internet,
as well as for running services such as Voice over IP (VoIP).
The access network
• The access network of LTE, E-UTRAN, simply consists of a network of
eNodeBs.
• For normal user traffic (as opposed to broadcast), there is no centralized
controller in E-UTRAN; hence the E-UTRAN architecture is said to be flat.

The eNodeBs are normally interconnected with

each other by means of an interface known as
“X2” and to the EPC by means of the S1 interface
— more specifically, to the MME by means of the
S1-MME interface and to the S-GW by means of
the S1-U interface.
The protocols that run between the eNodeBs and
the UE are known as the “AS protocols.”
The E-UTRAN is responsible for all radio-related functions, which can be summarized briefly
as:
• Radio resource management (RRM) – This covers all functions related to the radio bearers,
such as radio bearer control, radio admission control, radio mobility control, scheduling
and dynamic allocation of resources to UEs in both uplink and downlink.
• Header Compression – This helps to ensure efficient use of the radio interface by
compressing the IP packet headers that could otherwise represent a significant overhead,
especially for small packets such as VoIP.
• Security – All data sent over the radio interface is encrypted.
• Connectivity to the EPC – This consists of the signaling toward MME and the bearer path
toward the S-GW.
• On the network side, all of these functions reside in the eNodeBs, each of
which can be responsible for managing multiple cells.

• Unlike some of the previous second- and third-generation technologies, LTE

integrates the radio controller function into the eNodeB.

• This allows tight interaction between the different protocol layers of the
radio access network (RAN), thus reducing latency and improving efficiency.
• Such distributed control eliminates the need for a high-availability,
processing-intensive controller, which in turn has the potential to reduce
costs and avoid “single points of failure.”

• Furthermore, as LTE does not support soft handover there is no need for a
centralized data-combining function in the network.
Roaming architecture

• A network run by one operator in one country is known as a “public land

mobile network (PLMN).”

• Roaming, where users are allowed to connect to PLMNs other than those to
which they are directly subscribed, is a powerful feature for mobile networks,
and LTE/SAE is no exception.
• A roaming user is connected to the E-UTRAN, MME and S-GW of the visited
LTE network. However, LTE/SAE allows the P-GW of either the visited or the
home network to be used.

• Using the home network’s P-GW allows the user to access the home
operator’s services even while in a visited network. A P-GW in the visited
network allows a “local breakout” to the Internet in the visited network.
Protocol architecture

User plane

• An IP packet for a UE is encapsulated in an EPC-specific protocol and

tunneled between the P-GW and the eNodeB for transmission to the UE.
Different tunneling protocols are used across different interfaces.

• A 3GPP-specific tunneling protocol called the GPRS Tunneling Protocol (GTP)

is used over the CN interfaces, S1 and S5/S8.1
• The E-UTRAN user plane protocol stack is shown in blue in Figure,
consisting of the Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP), Radio Link
Control (RLC) and Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayers that are
terminated in the eNodeB on the network side.
• In the absence of any centralized controller node, data buffering during
handover due to user mobility in the E-UTRAN must be performed in the
eNodeB itself.
• Data protection during handover is a responsibility of the PDCP layer. The RLC
and MAC layers both start afresh in a new cell after handover.
Control plane
• The blue region of the stack indicates the AS protocols. The lower layers
perform the same functions as for the user plane with the exception that
there is no header compression function for the control plane.
• The Radio Resource Control (RRC) protocol is known as “layer 3” in the AS
protocol stack. It is the main controlling function in the AS, being responsible
for establishing the radio bearers and configuring all the lower layers using
RRC signaling between the eNodeB and the UE.